UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


OF" 


Accession  8.6.58.6 Cla*s 


IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION 


ITS  NATURE,  SCOPE  AND  SIGNIFICANCE 


BY 


JASPER  NEWTON  DEAHL,  A.  M. 

Sometime  Fellow  in  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


SUBMITTED   IN   PARTIAL   FULFILMENT   OF  THE   REQUIREMENTS 

FOR  THE   DEGREE   OF   DOCTOR   OF  PHILOSOPHY 

IN   THE 

FACULTY  OF  PHILOSOPHY 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


IRew 

19OO 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


INTRODUCTION 7 

I.  THE  NATURE  OF  IMITATION 9-21 

1.  Examples  of  imitatiot) 10 

2.  Two  kinds  of  imitation 12 

3.  Conscious  and  unconscious  imitation 16 

4.  Imitation  and  originality 16 

II.  THE  SCOPE  OF  IMITATION 22-37 

1.  In  history 22 

2.  In  religion      24 

3.  In  politics 25 

4.  In  art 26 

5.  In  literature   ...        31 

6.  In  society 33 

7.  In  science 37 

III.  THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION 38-94 

1.  What  has  been  thought  of  imitation 38 

2.  Imitation  among  children     ...                41 

3.  Imitation  among  students 44 

a.  Questionnaire  I    .    .                45 

b.  Questionnaire  II  .        47 

4.  The  training  of  teachers   .            52 

a.  Questionnaire  III 54 

b.  Questionnaire  IV         61 

5.  Imitation  in  teaching  morality 70 

6.  Imitation  in  learning  language 74 

7.  Imitation  in  composition 76 

8.  Imitation  in  the  acquisition  and  application  of  method.      83 


86580- 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

9.  Imitation  in  learning 86 

a.  Interest 87 

b.  Sympathy 90 

c.  Assimilation      ....  91 

d.  Emulation 93 

1.  Dangers  and  limitations  of  imitation 94 

2.  Summary 97 

3.  Bibliography 100 


IMITATION   IN   EDUCATION 
Its  Nature,  Scope,  and  Significance 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  plan  for  the  subject-matter  of  this  paper  is  to  consider 
these  three  topics — the  nature,  scope,  and  significance  of  imi- 
tation— in  the  order  here  named.  This  separate  treatment  of 
these  topics  will  be  observed  in  the  discussion  of  the  nature  of 
imitation  more  than  in  that  of  the  other  two.  Yet,  in  discuss- 
ing the  nature  of  imitation,  something  of  the  significance  must 
appear,  as  in  the  last  section,  which  considers  the  nature  and 
development  of  originality ;  in  that  section  of  the  paper  much 
of  the  significance  of  imitation  may  be  seen.  Each  of  the 
other  two  topics  will  involve  some  consideration  of  the  pre- 
ceding topics.  The  scope  of  imitation  will  bring  out  its  na- 
ture and  significance  to  some  extent;  the  significance  of  imi- 
tation will  show  much  of  its  scope,  and  especially  illustrate  the 
nature  of  imitation. 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  find  and  set  forth  something 
of  the  practical  value  of  imitation  in  education.  An  attempt 
will  be  made  to  show  that  imitation  is  more  fundamental  in 
our  human  nature  than  we  are  disposed  to  grant;  that  the  na- 
ture of  intelligent  imitation  is  such  as  not  only  to  admit  of, 
but  even  to  contribute  in  large  measure  to  the  development  of 
the  higher  powers  of  mind ;  that  its  scope  is  limited  to  no 
class  of  thinkers  or  doers,  and  to  no  particular  field  of  activ- 
7]  7 


8  I  MIT  A  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [  g 

ity;  that  its  significance  in  education  is  of  more  importance 
than  has  generally  been  recognized  by  teachers ;  that  imitation 
in  education  has  a  sound  practical  and  psychological  basis, 
and  that  it  should  be  ranked  and  used  with  the  more  valuable 
means  of  securing  mind  growth. 


THE    NATURE    OF    IMITATION 

THIS  paper  does  not  pretend  to  analyze  psychologically  the 
process  by  which  the  example  of  one  person  influences  the 
conduct  of  another.  We  seek  only  such  a  conception  of  the 
nature  of  imitation  as  shall  describe  the  facts  whose  import- 
ance in  life,  particularly  in  education,  we  are  trying  to  ascer- 
tain. We  may  say  roughly  that  there  are  two  kinds  of 
imitation — instinctive  in  the  lower  animals  and  intelligent  in 
man.  The  child,  so  far  as  its  intelligent  manifestations  are 
concerned,  till  it  is  about  six  months  old,  does  not  materially 
differ  from  the  lower  animals.  Its  first  imitative  acts  would 
be  more  instinctive  than  intelligent.  Some  doubtful  cases 
of  imitation  have  been  cited  much  earlier  than  the  sixth 
month.  Darwin  thinks  he  noticed  his  son  imitating  sounds 
at  four  months  old,  but  he  was  not  sure  of  any  positive  imi- 
tation until  the  sixth  month.  Tiedmann  noticed  his  son,  at 
four  months,  making  movements  with  his  mouth  when  he 
saw  any  one  drinking,  as  if  he  were  tasting  something. 
Preyer  observed  his  child  of  seven  months  laugh  in  response 
to  those  who  smiled  at  it.  In  each  of  these  cases,  the  in- 
stinctive tendency  was  prominent.  That  is,  the  child  did 
nothing  in  these  cases  that  it  might  not  have  done  about  that 
age  and  in  about  that  way  without  a  model  fr0m  any  one. 
These  and  such  acts  as  these,  where  the  instinct  undoubtedly 
plays  a  large  part,  we  shall  call  instinctive  imitation. 

It  is  about  the  sixth  month,  however,  that  intelligence 
begins  to  appear  in  the  child  and  its  imitative  acts  become 
9]  9 


!  0  IMITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  T1ON  [  L  o 

more  and  more  intelligent  and  less  instinctive.  1  Preyer  ob- 
served his  child  at  fifteen  months  try  to  blow  a  candle  out 
after  it  had  seen  some  one  else  perform  the  act.  This  is  an 
example  of  intelligent  imitation  in  one  of  its  simplest  forms. 
It  is  close  to  the  border  line,  close  to  copying  and  mimicry* 
and  partakes  largely  of  the  mechanical  which  is  always  found 
in  the  simpler  and  earlier  forms  of  children's  imitations.  It  is 
not  instinctive,  however,  since  instinct  alone  would  not  have 
prompted  the  child  to  blow  out  the  light  and  the  child  would 
not  have  done  so  without  the  model — seeing  some  one  blow 
it  out. 

A  higher  form  of  imitation  is  illustrated  in  a  child  dressing 
and  caring  for  her  doll.  Here  the  model  is  adapted  some- 
what by  the  child  to  her  material.  The  imagination  comes  in 
and  supplies  what  does  not  comport  with  the  external  model. 
Of  a  similar  kind  is  a  case  cited  by  2Mr.  Small.  This  boy 
had  seen  some  men  putting  in  a  system  of  electric  lighting. 
On  his  return  to  his  home,  the  boy  drove  sticks  into  the  ground 
and  stretched  ropes  about  the  porch  and  windows  and  climbed 
the  posts  to  arrange  and  mend  the  lines  as  he  had  seen  the 
line-men  do.  This  case  of  imitation  is  of  a  little  higher  order 
than  that  of  the  child  with  the  doll.  It  required  some  more 
imagination  to  reproduce  the  model,  more  selection  of  elements 
and  adaptation. 

Another  example  of  imitation  may  be  taken  from  a  teacher. 
In  this  case,  the  teacher  had  occasion  to  be  under  the  tuition 
and  see  the  work  of  a  skillful  and  efficient  instructor.  The 
method  of  the  instructor,  his  manner  of  questioning  his  pupils, 
management  of  classes,  skill  in  illustrating  and  developing  the 
subjects,  his  calm  demeanor  and  self-possession,  his  interest 
and  zeal  in  subjects  and  for  his  pupils,  greatly  pleased  the 
teacher.  When  the  teacher  began  school  work  again,  he  took 

1  Senses  and  Will,  p.  288. 

2  Pedagogical  Seminary r,  4;    20. 


H]  THE  NATURE  OF  IMITATION  H 

this  instructor  as  his  model.  By  close  application,  selection, 
and  discrimination,  the  teacher  acquired  much  of  his  instruc- 
tor's skill  and  powder  for  teaching.  But  by  a  slower,  more 
pains-taking  course,  the  teacher,  who  was  not  naturally  calm, 
self-possessed,  nor  given  to  manifest  interest  and  enthusiasm, 
found  himself  becoming  like  his  instructor  in  these  things. 
The  teacher  continued  to  try  to  emulate  the  model  instructor 
until  self-possession  and  enthusiasm  in  his  school  work  be- 
came natural  and  fixed  in  his  character.  He  no  longer  needed 
to  be  on  his  guard  at  every  point  in  these  matters.  This 
example  of  imitation  is  still  of  a  higher  order  than  that  of  the 
boy  putting  in  the  electric  lighting.  The  point  of  chief  note 
here  not  found  in  that  of  the  boy  is  that  the  teacher  repro- 
duced in  himself  the  inner  state  and  condition  of  mind  in  the 
instructor  and  acquired  them  by  imitation. 

In  these  three  examples  cited,  the  model  was  obtained 
chiefly  by  seeing  it,  by  being  brought  into  contact  with  it.  I 
now  wish  to  give  two  examples  of  imitation  where  the  model 
is  obtained  not  at  all,  or  only  indirectly,  through  sight.  Re- 
cently I  heard  a  Sunday-school  lecture.  The  lecturer  said  in 
his  introductory  remarks  that  he  had  learned  of  a  certain 
clergyman  who  used  candles  to  illustrate  his  Sunday-school 
lectures.  The  lecturer  whom  I  heard  stated  that,  upon  learn- 
ing of  the  candle  method,  he  said  to  himself,  "The  plan  is  a 
good  one,  I  can  do  that."  So  he  set  to  work  and  got  up  his 
outfit  to  illustrate  the  points  he  wished  to  bring  out  before  the 
school.  This  was  an  imitation,  and  at  the  same  time  highly 
original.  It  was  an  imitation  in  that  the  model  was  obtained 
from  another  person  and  suggested  the  general  plan  and  pur- 
pose. It  was  original  in  that  the  model  gave  but  a  bare  out- 
line. The  details  had  to  be  chosen  and  the  model  perfected 
by  a  process  of  synthesis.  It  had  to  be  constructed.  It  was 
built  up  by  imagination  after  the  judgment  had  approved  of 
the  elements  chosen.  The  vague  model  was  brought  out  in 
clearness  by  addition  and  combination  of  elements. 


j  2  2 MIT  A  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [  1 2 

The  other  and  last  example  of  imitation  I  desire  to  give  is 
of  a  somewhat  different  kind,  though  similar  to  the  last  named. 
In  this  example,  as  in  the  last,  the  model  was  not  obtained  di- 
rectly from  the  one  imitated.  It  differs,  however,  in  that  none 
of  the  exact  data  of  the  model  is  found  in  the  imitation.  This 
is  an  example  where  the  model  is  a  method  of  doing  some- 
thing. The  method  is  imitated.  Mr.  Edward  Dowden1  saw 
two  of  the  Literary  Portraits  of  Sainte-Beuve  side  by  side  in  a 
picture  gallery.  The  portraits  were  those  of  Mathurin  Regnier 
and  of  Andre  Chenier.  The  poets  represented  by  these  two 
portraits  were  of  two  distinct  types.  Their  poetical  spirits 
and  systems  of  thought  and  feeling  were  unlike.  They  repre- 
sented two  poles  on  the  world  of  poetic  lore;  the  one  was  the 
complement  of  the  other.  The  two  portraits  placed  side  by 
side  represented  a  comparative  study  of  the  two  poets.  This 
method  of  the  painter  served  so  well  its  purpose — to  bring  out 
in  bold  relief  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  two  comple- 
mentary literary  characters — that  Mr.  Dowden  said  he  would 
adopt  the  method.  This  he  did  in  his  study  of  Tennyson 
and  Browning,  and  we  have  his  excellent  essay  on  these  two 
poets :  "  Mr.  Tennyson  and  Mr.  Browning — a  Comparative 
Study." 

These  examples  of  imitation  may  be  shown  to  exhibit  the 
chief  characteristics  of  both  the  instinctive  and  the  intelligent 
types  of  imitation.  Those  referred  to  before  the  sixth  month 
of  the  child's  life  are  of  the  instinctive  type.  The  model  or 
the  action  that  called  forth  the  activity  of  the  child  simply 
turned  the  child-like  impulse  in  a  given  direction  at  that  time. 
The  child  did  only  what  it  might  have  done,  or  what  at  least  it 
was  able  to  do  without  the  model.  Such  may  be  called  imita- 
tive only  from  the  objective  point  of  view.  To  the  observer,  this 
seems  to  be  imitative;  it  is  not  such,  however,  from  the  child's 
point  of  view.  The  child  did  not  in  any  sense  whatever  delib- 

1  Studies  in  Literature,  p.  191. 


I  3]  THE  NA  TURE  OF  IMITA  TION  j  3 

erately  set  about  to  do  the  thing  cited  in  any  of  those  cases. 
His  action  was  objectively  imitative;  subjectively  it  was  in- 
stinctive. 

This  instinctive  response  is  seen  later  in  the  life  of  the  child 
and  even  in  the  adult,  and  must  be  distinguished  from  sub- 
jective, intelligent  imitation.  It  is  often  found  so  closely  blended 
with  the  intelligent  imitation  as  to  render  discrimination  be- 
tween the  two  kinds  difficult.  You  may  observe  it  in  the  be- 
havior of  the  child  when  you  extend  your  hand  to  greet  him. 
I  have  found  upon  trial  that  most  children  who  have  not  formed 
the  habit  of  giving  the  right  hand  and  who  at  the  time  are  not, 
as  it  were,  on  their  guard,  will  give  the  hand  opposite  the  one 
you  extend.  That  is,  they  will  give  the  left  hand  in  response 
to  your  right  and  the  right  to  your  left.  In  these  cases  the 
responses  were  instinctive.  The  child  simply  imitated  the 
model  set  before  it  in  a  reflexive  way.  It  is  only  when  the 
child  has  learned  to  inhibit  the  instinctive  impulse  or  when 
such  inhibition  has  resulted  in  habit  that  it  responds  to  your 
greeting  after  the  established  form. 

This  same  kind  of  imitative  tendency  is  noticeable  in  the 
adult.  Some  one  laughs,  others  present  do  the  same  without 
knowing  the  cause  of  the  laughter,  or  why  they  themselves 
laughed  ;  or  some  one  coughs,  others  do  the  same  without 
having  any  other  occasion  for  so  doing  except  that  the  model 
was  set,  and  as  it  were  they  followed  suit. 

It  is  probably  true  that  intelligent  imitation  has  its  origin  in 
instinctive  imitation.  Human  intelligence  is  thought  to  have 
its  beginnings  in  instinct.  Instinctive  behavior  forms  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  raw  material  on  which  intelligence  exercises 
itself.  The  intelligence  fashions  and  moulds  this  raw  material 
and  guides  the  activities  concerned  to  finer  issues  in  individual 
adaptation.  Thus,  beginning  with  a  congenital  and  instinctive 
imitative  tendency,  the  intelligence  may  later  utilize  that  ten- 
dency as  the  basis  of  imitation  of  the  intelligent  type. 

The  first  example  of  intelligent  imitation — the  child  blowing 


1 4  1MITA  riON  IN  ED UCA  TION  [  r 4 

the  candle  out — is  not  cited  because  intelligence  is  thought  to 
manifest  itself  in  the  child  for  the  first  time.  There  may  have 
been  earlier  many  other  intelligent  acts,  but  this  one  is  clear. 
There  is  no  doubt  to  which  category  it  belongs.  Yet,  while  it 
is  well  marked  off  from  instinctive  imitation  below,  it  is  quite 
easily  distinguished  from  the  next  example — the  child  dressing 
the  doll  or  the  boy  putting  in  the  electric  plant.  It  was  not 
necessary  to  have  in  the  mind  of  the  child  the  image  of  the 
one  setting  the  model  or  of  the  child's  self  blowing  the  light 
out  in  order  that  he  himself  might  be  able  to  blow  the  light 
out.  The  knowledge  the  model  gave  the  child  was  sense 
knowledge.  The  knowledge  was  almost  wholly  of  the  percep- 
tual kind.  It  was  presentative  knowledge  as  opposed  to  rep- 
resentative knowledge.  There  was  no  distinct  image  in  the 
mind  of  the  child  of  what  it  would  do  in  blowing  out  the 
light.  The  model  was,  so  to  speak,  outside  the  child's  mind, 
as  any  sense  knowledge  or  perception  may  be  described  as  be- 
ing outside  the  mind;  for  example,  the  child,  seeing  its  mother, 
has  no  idea,  no  image  of  the  mother  in  its  mind. 

Now,  in  the  second  example,  there  is  a  distinct  advance  to- 
wards a  higher  form  of  knowledge,  or  what  results  from  sense 
knowledge.  The  boy  saw  the  men  put  in  the  electric  plant,  or 
the  girl  saw  the  mother  making  the  clothes  and  putting  them 
on  the  children.  These  things  seen  left  an  image  in  the  mind 
of  the  children.  The  model  now  is  within  the  mind.  It  is  an 
idea  that  is  to  be  acted  out,  to  be  expressed.  It  is  very  im- 
portant in  a  proper  understanding  of  the  nature  of  imitation 
to  make  this  distinction — the  model  as  sense  knowledge  out- 
side, as  it  were,  of  the  mind,  and  the  model  as  ideational 
knowledge,  an  image  within  the  mind.  It  is  only  when  the 
model  is  an  image  in  the  mind  that  anything  akin  to  original- 
ity may  be  looked  for  in  imitation. 

This  introduction  of  the  new  element,  originality,  in  imita- 
tion appears  more  clearly  in  the  next  example  cited.  It  is  not 
so  apparent  in  the  case  of  the  teacher.  At  least  we  have  no 


!$]  THE  NATURE  OF  IMITATION  jr 

account  of  it  given.  Originality  may  not  have  been  present  in 
the  imitative  process.  Yet  originality  is  here  made  possible 
after  the  teacher  has  well  formed  the  habit  of  behaving  after 
the  manner  of  his  instructor.  Energy  is  then  released  to 
pursue  new  courses.  In  the  example  of  the  Sunday-school 
lecturer,  sense  knowledge  does  not  at  all  appear  in  the  model 
as  obtained  from  the  clergyman.  The  end  to  be  attained  was 
as  in  all  originality,  a  guide  in  building  up  the  new  model. 
The  means  and  the  end  were  not  so  apparent  as  in  the  former 
examples.  The  means  had  to  be  supplied  more  largely  in 
this  case ;  and  the  mind  was  more  free  to  adapt  the  means  to 
the  end.  The  vague  model  became  vivified  in  the  process. 
This  model  was  tested  by  imaginary  trial,  changed  where  de- 
fective, and  finally  the  perfected  model  was  acted  out.  It 
should  be  noted  that  in  these  examples  cited  above  the  pro- 
cess is  progressive  from  the  first  to  the  fourth.  The  progress 
is  from  presentative  knowledge  to  representative  knowledge. 
It  is  from  perceptual  model  to  ideational  model,  from  a  well 
defined  to  a  less  well  defined  model  which  is  modified  and 
adapted  to  secure  the  desired  end.  In  the  next  example,  this 
progress  from  the  more  concrete  to  the  less  concrete  obtains 
in  a  still  larger  sense.  The  model  is  less  well-defined  to  begin 
with.  Mr.  Dowden  saw  the  portraits  which  gave  him  the 
artist's  method  or  model  of  making  the  comparative  study. 
The  model  was  not  complete  at  first.  It  had  to  be  filled  out 
as  in  the  last  example.  Just  what  the  artist  had  in  mind,  Mr. 
Dowden  must  supply  to  a  considerable  extent  from  his 
knowledge  of  literature  and  literary  men.  Then  this  model, 
which  was  a  method  of  doing  something  with  the  brush,  must 
be  carried  over  into  literature  and  adapted  to  the  pen.  It 
ceases  to  be  a  painted  image  in  the  mind  ;  it  becomes  a  word 
picture.  Instead  of  the  painter's  ideal,  it  becomes  the  ideal  of 
the  man  of  letters.  The  model  has  become  an  ideal  such  as 
the  author  may  not  attain  but  towards  which  he  may  strive. 
He  may  have  all  the  essential  characteristics — even  their 


1 6  1MITA  77  ON  IN  ED  UCA  TWN  ["  l  ft 

shades  of  differences  of  thought  and  feeling — in  his  ideal 
model.  They  may  stand  out  clear  and  distinct  to  Mr. 
Dowden  but  he  can  never  give  a  word  picture  of  Tennyson 
and  Browning  as  clear  as  the  one  he  sees  in  his  model.  His 
model  has  become  an  ideal  because  of  the  material  of  which 
it  is  formed  and  because  of  its  being  beyond  his  power  of 
attainment.  Owing  to  this  nature  of  the  model,  including  in 
its  reach  all  stages  of  mind  activity  from  sense  knowledge  to 
ideal  conceptions,  imitation,  which  is  the  acting  out  of  the 
model,  embraces  a  large  range  of  mind  activity.  It  is  an 
essential  element  in  all  originality  except  possibly  the  purely 
creative. 

Imitation  cannot  be  described  as  wholly  conscious.  We 
imitate  many  times  unconsciously.  It  is  true  we  often  imitate 
with  set  purpose,  have  the  model  as  such  in  our  minds ;  but 
this  is  not  always  true.  I  doubt  whether  it  is  true  in  most 
cases  of  imitation.  The  fact  that  we  find  ourselves  continually 
imitating  what  we  would  prefer  not  to  imitate  disproves  the 
proposition  that  we  always  consciously  imitate.  Besides,  I 
have  found  many  cases  of  imitation  in  other  persons  where  the 
imitator  was  not  conscious  of  it  as  such  until  after  it  was 
pointed  out  to  him.  Much  of  our  imitation  may  be  detected 
only  after  the  act  has  been  performed  by  close  analysis  of  our 
conduct  and  by  close  introspection  and  discrimination  of  our 
own  past  mental  operations  and  method  of  procedure.  Even 
then  much  will  escape  our  notice.  Many  of  our  models  are 
secured  long  before  the  opportunity  to  realize  them  presents 
itself,  and  we  forget  where  and  how  we  got  them.  In  such 
cases  we  are  apt  to  claim  originality. 

Imitation  as  an  element  in  originality  has  been  referred  to. 
It  will  now  be  necessary  to  inquire  somewhat  briefly  into  the 
nature  of  originality  to  see  what  elements  of  imitation  are 
found  in  it.  This  is  the  more  incumbent  upon  us  since  the 
educational  significance  of  imitation  does  not  depend  so  much 
upon  the  lower  limitations  of  imitation — its  origin,  for  instance, 


!^]  THE  NATURE  OF  IMITATION  ij 

as  it  does  upon  its  upper  limitations,  its  possibilities  of  leading 
to  what  is  called  originality  in  thonght  and  action.  Most 
persons  admit  that  imitation  has  some  value  in  the  early  life  of 
the  child.  Very  few,  however,  agree  that  it  has  any  consider- 
able significance  for  the  adult.  This,  I  take  it,  is  an  error  due 
to  lack  of  close  discrimination.  The  adult  as  well  as  the  child, 
the  genius  as  well  as  the  man  of  mediocrity,  has  his  model. 
The  absence  of  model  on  the  part  of  the  genius  is  not  the  thing 
that  marks  him  off  from  the  rest  of  mankind.  On  the  con- 
trary, he  has  his  model,  just  as  surely  as  the  proletarian  in 
thought  has  his  model.  The  difference  between  two  such 
persons  consists  in  the  difference  of  manner  in  using  such 
models.  The  genius  thinks  his  model  over,  colors  it  with  his 
own  individuality,  his  own  personality,  and  thus  conceals  it 
from  ordinary  observation ;  yet  imitation  is  the  important 
element.  It  is  simply  of  a  higher  order,  more  synthetic,  more 
constructive  in  nature.  Those  who  are  not  included  in  the 
number  of  imitators  are  so  few  compared  with  those  who  do 
imitate  that  they  do  not  affect  the  significance  of  imitation  in 
education.  It  has  been  well  said  that  for  these  few  such  edu- 
cation as  one  person  may  occasion  in  another  is  very  little. 
Most  that  maybe  done  for  such  persons  is  of  a  negative  rather 
than  of  a  positive  nature. 

The  very  small  number  of  such  illustrious  persons  may  be 
seen  by  consulting  l  Mr.  Galton's  "  Hereditary  Genius."  By  a 
very  careful  study  of  distinguished  men  of  various  periods  and 
countries,  he  found  that  one  man  in  4000  may  be  called  emi- 
nent and  that  not  more  than  one  in  a  million,  or  in  many  mil- 
lions, sometimes,  may  be  called  illustrious.  The  terms  eminent 
and  illustrious  are  not  applied  to  men  who  have  become  noted 
by  some  single  act  or  by  some  official  position.  They  refer 
to  men  who  have  attained  and  can  maintain  their  distinction 
whatever  their  position  in  society  may  have  been  or  may  be  in 
the  future.  Mr.  Galton  characterizes  such  men  as  possessing 

1  Hereditary  Genius,  p.  9. 


I  g  I  MIT  A  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [  j  g 

three    separate    qualities — intellect,  zeal,  and    power   to   do 
work. 

1  In  cases  of  originality,  there  must  be  an  active  turn  of  mind 
or  a  profuseness  of  energy  put  forth  in  trials  of  all  kinds. 
There  must  be  a  disposition  to  try  experiments  not  unlike  a 
fanaticism  for  experimentation.  Profuse,  active  vigor  let  loose 
on  a  field  which  has  increasing  charm  for  the  mind,  results  in 
human  nature  surpassing  itself.  Then  we  have  originality,  in- 
vention, discovery.  2  These  original  men  and  women,  the 
marvelous  flowers  of  the  race,  do  not  appear  by  chance  or  by 
miracle,  but  represent  the  crowning  point  of  a  long  past.  They 
synthesize  the  greatness  of  their  time  and  of  the  race.  Inven- 
tion and  discovery  are  always  the  result  of  a  long  series  of 
anterior  inventions  and  discoveries.  The  geniuses  build  an 
edifice  with  the  stones  that  others  have  hewn.  Invention  is 
only  the  crowning  stroke.  3  No  elements  of  representation  can 
get  into  consciousness  except  as  they  have  already  been  pres- 
ent in  some  form  in  presentation.  The  activities  of  consciousness 
are  always  conditioned  on  the  content  of  presentation  and  re- 
presentation present  at  a  given  time.  Imagination  is  construc- 
tive, not  creative.  Types  of  imagination  differ  only  in  the 
amount  of  novelty  introduced — the  lucky  associations  formed 
in  discerning  fine  distinctions  in  the  contiguous  or  in  the 
similar.  *  The  man  of  originality  differs  from  the  merely 
mechanical  man  in  his  imitative  tendencies  just  in  the  same 
way  that  he  differs  in  his  thinking  from  such  a  man.  The  two 
types  of  mind  are  separated  by  a  very  wide  gulf  which  at  the 
same  time  is  very  narrow.  A  mere  matter  of  difference  in 
direction  of  nerve-currents  might  produce  opposite  results.  It 
is  a  matter  of  association  of  ideas  that  marks  off  the  man  of 

1  Bain,  Senses  and  Intellect,  p.  610. 

8  Le  Bon,  Psychology  of  Peoples,  p.  200. 

2  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  p.  90. 
4  James,  Psychology,  II;  325. 


jp]  THE  NATURE  OF  IMITATION  j^ 

originality  from  the  man  of  commonplace  thought.  In  the 
latter,  we  have  a  mind  that  deals  only  in  habitual  contiguities 
or  similarities ;  in  the  former,  we  have  a  mind  that  deals  in 
rare  and  keenly  discriminated  contiguities  and  similarities. 
Now,  something  analogous  to  this  is  found  to  hold  true  be- 
tweeen  the  two  types  of  mind  in  the  matter  of  imitation.  The 
mechanical  rnind  discovers  and  uses  only  the  perfectly  appar- 
ent models  for  imitation.  The  model  is  followed  almost  liter- 
ally. There  is  little  adaptation.  The  original  mind  has  the 
sagacity  to  see  the  finer  issues  in  the  model,  to  see  where  new 
elements  may  be  added  or  old  ones  modified.  The  associa- 
tions in  such  a  mind  take  in  the  novel,  make  unaccustomed 
connections.  The  model  becomes  a  vitalized  thing ;  the  model 
changes,  grows,  and  becomes  an  ideal. 

Originality  as  shown  in  the  psychology  of  J  invention  illu- 
strates the  common  elements  found  in  imitation  and  in 
in  originality.  Inventions  may  be  divided  into  two  psy- 
chological types, — the  one  creative,  due  to  spontaneous  and 
novel  synthesis,  the  other  developing  an  old  form — a  distinct 
model.  An  invention  is  a  new  systemization  of  psychic  ele- 
ments. Every  intellectual  creation,  whatever  it  may  be, 
literary,  artistic,  scientific,  or  industrial,  consists  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  synthetic  idea  furnished  by  new  combinations  of 
elements  already  existing  in  the  mind.  The  invention  is  the 
reaction  of  the  mind  upon  some  given  circumstances,  and  it 
depends  for  its  results  upon  the  nature  of  the  reacting  mind. 
The  model  is  often  presented  to  the  mind  in  some  unlocked 
for  manner.  The  sagacious  mind  seizes  it  and  develops  it  by 
a  synthetic  process.  The  first  idea  M.  Daudet  had  of  "  Fro- 
ment  Jeune  "  came  to  him  while  seeing  a  play  in  a  vaudeville 
theatre.  The  first  idea  M.  Massenet  had  of  his  "  Roi  de 
Lahore  "  was  received  at  the  sight  of  a  simple  Indian  chest. 
Roger  Dumas  gives  in  some  detail  how  his  mind  was  prepared 

JF.  Paulhan,  in  Revue  Philosophique,  45;   pp.  225-258. 


2Q  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  [2O 

to  write  "  Tristesse  de  David."  Mr.  Dumas  saw  a  painting  of 
David,  old,  sorrowful,  in  a  reverie  upon  his  throne,  with  the 
sun  setting.  The  author  tells  how  he  filled  out  in  his  mind 
the  whole  intent  and  purpose  of  the  painter,  how  he  added 
other  images  to  this  one  central  image — the  model,  how  he 
changed  and  recombined  the  elements  of  his  mental  images? 
until  finally  his  subject  "  Tristesse  de  David  "  came  out  of  this 
"  hatching  "  process.  Having  his  subject,  he  continued  to 
take  note  of  the  images  that  seemed  best  suited  for  his  theme 
until  he  reached  an  image  that  would  fittingly  close  his  literary 
work.  Then  he  selected  and  arranged  his  images  to  form  his 
perfected  model. 

Many  other  examples  might  be  cited,  including  almost 
every  form  of  invention  and  scientific  discovery,  such  as  the 
air  brake  suggested  to  Westinghouse  by  an  account  of  com- 
pressed air  used  in  piercing  a  tunnel.  Practically  the  only 
kind  of  invention  or  discovery  in  which  imitation  does  not 
figure  largely  as  an  element,  is  that  kind  hit  upon  by  trial  and 
error,  continued  experimentation.  A  good  example  of  the 
last  named  kind  is  found  in  Mr.  Goodyear's  invention  of  vul- 
canized india-rubber.  In  this  case,  and  in  similar  cases,  the 
inventor  simply  tried  one  experiment  after  another  until  a 
happy  hit  was  made.  It  can  not  be  said  that  he  had  a  model 
in  mind  and  worked  it  out  to  perfection.  But  in  all  or  most 
of  the  cases  where  originality  is  manifested  imitation  is  an  im- 
portant factor.  Where  the  invention  is  a  development,  imita- 
tion of  successive  models  may  be  called  the  chief  factor  in  the 
process;  where  invention  is  constructive,  the  elements  are 
already  in  the  mind,  and  the  model  is  fashioned  by  the  syn- 
thetic process  and  realizes  itself  in  imitation  of  the  model. 

To  support  the  position  taken  here,  I  wish  to  give  a  quota- 
tion from  a  history  and  description  of  remarkable  inventions. 
The  passage  to  be  cited  does  not  use  the  term  imitation,  but 
it  may  be  clearly  seen  that  the  process  of  invention,  or  the 
means  of  developing  originality,  consists  in  intelligent  selection 


2 1  ]  THE  NA  TURE   OF  I  MIT  A  TION  2 1 

of  models  and  in  constructive  imitation  of  such  models.  1<(To 
enable  us  to  appreciate  properly  the  gradual  advances  that 
have  been  made  in  perfecting  any  invention,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  its  distinguishing  features.  In  steam  navigation,  for 
example,  it  will  be  found  that  the  amount  of  novelty  to  which 
each  inventor  has  a  claim  is  very  small,  and  that  his  principal 
merit  consists  in  the  application  of  other  inventions  to  accom- 
plish his  special  object.  The  same  remark  will  indeed  apply 
to  most  other  inventions  ;  for  the  utmost  that  inventive  genius 
can  accomplish  is  to  put  together  in  new  forms,  and  with 
different  applications,  preceding  contrivances  and  discoveries, 
which  were  also  the  results  of  antecedent  knowledge,  labor, 
and  skill." 

1  T.  C.  Bakewell,  Great  Facts,  p.  7. 


II 


THE   SCOPE    OF    IMITATION 

THE  scope  or  the  extent  of  imitation  in  the  world  at  large  is 
much  greater  than  we  are  usually  disposed  to  think.  A  fair 
appreciation  of  this  factor  in  the  institutional  life  of  society, 
will  indicate  how  large  an  influence  the  imitative  tendency  and 
the  imitative  ability  should  have  in  one  institution  of  civiliza- 
tion— the  school.  I  can  not  here  give  more  than  a  few 
examples  from  history.  And  yet,  these  will  go  to  show  some- 
thing of  the  range  and  scope  of  imitation,  and  to  suggest  what 
a  more  exhaustive  account  might  contain. 

The  history  of  the  world  is  one  panorama  of  imitation.  The 
more  carefully  and  minutely  the  study  of  history  is  made,  the 
more  apparent  this  fact  becomes.  In  this  historical  sketch,  I 
shall  cite  only  those  nations  and  peoples  who  have  been 
prominent  in  the  affairs  of  the  world.  These  will  exhibit  the 
intelligent  type  of  imitation  of  which  we  are  now  speaking.  I 
shall  choose  a  few  of  the  many  notable  examples  from  people 
of  recognized,  high  intellectual  types.  The  Hebrews  may  be 
noted  first.  It  is  a  matter  of  record  that  the  nation  became  a 
kingdom  in  imitation  of  the  neighboring  nations.  Any  one 
who  will  make  a  comparative  study  of  the  ancient  oriental 
religions  will  not  fail  to  note  the  striking  similarity  between 
the  Hebrew  religion  and  the  other  religions  of  that  region. 
The  origin  of  much  of  the  Hebrew  belief  and  practice  can  be 
distinctly  traced  to  other  religions.  This  does  not  take  any 
account  whatever  of  the  many  lapses  into  idolatry  which  were 
due  almost  wholly  to  imitation.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  Hebrews  were  a  strong,  vigorous,  intellectual  people. 

22  [22 


23]  THE  SCOPE  OF  IMITATION  2$ 

They  were  peculiarly  hedged  about  to  prevent  this  very  thing, 
to,  keep  them  from  imitating  in  government  and  religion. 
With  all  this,  there  is  no  better  example  of  the  power  and 
significance  of  imitation.  Just  how  much  the  Greeks  followed 
other  nations  and  peoples  in  the  development  of  their  govern- 
ment, religion,  and  art  is  not  easily  determined.  It  is  a  fact, 
however,  worthy  of  note  that  there  were  but  two  models  in 
Greece  for  the  Greeks.  Sparta  and  Athens  set  the  pattern  for 
all  the  other  Greek  states  and  for  the  colonies.  Rome  has 
been  called  the  nation  of  borrowers.  It  would  be  more  nearly 
correct  to  call  the  Romans  the  nation  of  imitators.  The 
significant  part  they  played  in  the  world's  history  is  due 
almost  wholly  to  their  remarkable  imitative  tendency  and 
ability.  They  possessed  great  ability  for  imitating.  Yet,  they 
contributed  largely  to  the  progress  of  humanity.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  have  been  models  in  art,  literature,  law,  etc.,  for 
all  the  world.  History  is  full  of  the  accounts  of  those  who 
have  tried  to  restore  Athens  and  Rome.  The  dream  of 
Charlemagne  was  of  this  nature.  For  a  thousand  years  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the  Germans  was  an  imitation  of 
Rome.  The  Roman  model  still  lives  in  the  German  schools, 
laws,  and  government.  The  Crusades  were  one  vast  imitative 
enterprise.  The  epidemic  extended  from  children  to  the  aged, 
from  the  most  simple-minded  to  the  most  acute  thinkers  of  the 
time.  Even  after  the  fanatical  craze  was  over,  after  the 
imitative  tendency  had  expended  itself,  deliberate  imitation 
continued  in  the  military  and  commercial  enterprises.  The 
feudalism  of  the  Middle  Ages  had  its  origin,  as  an  institution, 
and  its  growth  in  imitation.  It  remains  to-day  in  our  "  spoils 
system."  That  very  astute  and  far-sighted  warrior  and  states- 
man, Peter  the  Great,  said,  when  he  was  defeated  by  the 
Swedes,  that  they  had  simply  taught  him  how  to  beat  them  in 
later  engagements.  Peter  the  Great  founded  his  empire  by 
imitating  other  nations.  The  remarkable  development  and 
recently  manifested  power  of  Japan  is  due  to  its  ability  and 


24  IMITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [24 

disposition  to  imitate  western  civilization.  When  Prussia  in 
1870  defeated  France,  the  latter  immediately  began  to  repair 
her  loss  and  to  render  a  similar  disaster  less  possible  by  imitat- 
ing Germany  in  her  public  education.  Our  own  constitution* 
said  to  be  the  most  original  ever  framed,  contains  no  new 
elements.  Every  essential  feature  may  be  found  in  European 
governments.  There  was  simply  a  new  arrangement,  a  new 
synthesis  of  the  old.  Our  state  constitutions  are  modeled 
after  our  national  constitution— an  imitation  of  it.  The 
motive  force  in  modern  labor  organizations  and  of  trusts  and 
'  combines  "  is  to  be  found  in  the  tendency  and  ability  to 
imitate.  One  class  of  laborers  organize,  or  one  industry  is 
formed  into  a  trust;  the  result  is  seen,  and  the  process  is 
imitated. 

The  influence  of  imitation  in  religion  is  too  apparent  to  need 
more  than  a  mere  reference,  There  is  probably  not  one  per- 
son in  a  thousand,  who  deliberately  chooses  his  religion  from 
among  Christianity,  Mohammedanism,  Buddhism,  etc.  Even 
among  Christian  denominations,  there  is  probably  not  more 
than  one  in  a  hundred  whose  membership  is  not  determined 
by  imitation  of  parents  or  of  those  with  whom  he  is  associated* 
The  imitative  tendency  in  religion  is  strongly  marked  by 
American  religious  epidemics,  usually  termed  revivals.  In 
1800  a  religious  epidemic  spread  rapidly  in  this  country.  In 
Kentucky,  a  camp-meeting  was  held  at  Cabin  Creek.  It  lasted 
four  days.  People  were  seized  with  fits  of  crying,  singing, 
praying,  shouting.  All  the  people  in  that  vicinity  were  drawn 
into  the  maelstrom  as  if  by  magic.  One  man  thus  describes 
the  scenes:  " The  laborer  quitted  his  task;  age  snatched  his 
crutch ;  youth  forgot  his  pastimes ;  the  plow  was  left  in  the 
furrow ;  the  deer  enjoyed  a  respite  upon  the  mountains ;  busi- 
ness of  all  kinds  was  suspended  ;  bold  hunters  and  sober 
matrons,  young  men,  maidens,  and  little  children  flocked  to  the 
common  centre  of  attraction."  This  is  simply  an  example  of 
what  occurred  at  other  places  and  at  other  times,  as  in  New 
Haven  and  New  York  in  1832. 


25]  THE  SCOPE  OF  IMITATION  2$ 

Commercial  epidemics  illustrate  the  force  of  imitation 
in  a  slightly  different  form.  This  is  seen  when  a  run  is  made 
on  a  bank  or  when  some  speculating  scheme  is  set  on  foot. 
It  has  been  well  said  that  1 "  men  think  in  crowds  and  go 
mad  in  herds."  The  tulip  craze  in  Holland,  the  South  Sea 
Scheme,  the  Mississppi  Scheme  are  well  known  examples. 
In  these  examples,  imitation,  at  least  intelligent  imitation, 
is  not  the  only  factor,  but  it  is  one  of  the  operating  influ- 
ences. 

In  politics  imitation  is  quite  as  prominent  as  in  religion. 
Most  men  vote  the  ticket  of  their  fathers  or  at  least  find  them- 
selves more  closely  allied  with  the  party  of  their  fathers,  than 
with  any  other  party.  This  is  very  noticeable  where  children 
of  the  same  parents  are  separated  and  brought  up  by  other 
people.  In  such  cases  the  boys  ally  themselves,  in  nearly  every 
case,  with  the  party  to  which  their  guardians  belong,  and  if 
these  happen  to  belong  to  different  parties,  the  brothers  will  be 
of  different  political  faith.  I  recently  collected  a  few  data  to 
find  to  what  extent  men  do  imitate  their  parents  in  this  matter. 
I  gave  two  questions  to  a  number  of  college  men.  All  the 
men  are  college  graduates,  a  number  are  college  professors. 
The  purpose  in  selecting  this  class  of  men  was  to  get  those 
who  would  be  most  likely  to  break  away  from  parental  influ- 
ences. If  the  answers  do  not  represent  the  facts,  I  think  the 
error  is  on  the  negative  side — on  the  side  of  those  who  do  not 
vote  as  their  fathers.  The  reason  for  this  belief  is,  many  men 
whom  I  approached  on  the  subject  were  somewhat  sensitive  on 
the  question.  They  would  at  once  see  the  import  of  the  questions 
and  manifested  a  dislike  to  be  reckoned  with  those  who  imitate 
in  anything.  They  are  like  most  men  in  desiring  to  be  among 
the  thinkers,  "  the  eminently  original."  The  two  questions 
were  :  (i)  Do  you  vote  the  same  party  ticket  that  your  father 
votes?  (2)  If  not,  do  you  find  yourself  more  closely  allied 

1  Sidis,  Psychology  of  Sufgestion,  p.  343. 


26  IMITA  TION  JN  ED  UCA  TION  [ 26 

with  the  party  of  your  father  than  with  any  other  party  ?  To 
the  first  question,  33  answered  yes  and  17  no.  To  the  second 
question  9  answered  yes  and  8  no.  The  number  of  men  to 
whom  these  were  put  was  50.  Thirty-three  or  sixty-six  per 
cent,  voted  the  party  ticket  of  their  fathers ;  seventeen  or 
thirty- four  per  cent,  did  not.  If  the  nine  who  answered  in  the 
affirmative  to  the  second  question  be  added  to  those  of  the 
first  question,  we  have  forty- two  or  eighty- four  per  cent,  who 
do  vote  as  their  fathers  against  eight  or  sixteen  per  cent,  who 
do  not  belong  to  the  party  of  their  fathers.  These  last  eighty- 
four  and  sixteen  per  cent,  respectively,  represent  the  facts,  be- 
cause an  affirmative  answer  to  the  second  is  practically  the 
same  answer  to  the  first.  It  is  certainly  true  that  if  men  were 
promiscuously  canvassed,  the  per  cent,  of  those  adhering  to 
the  paternal  party  would  be  much  larger.  This  on  a  small 
scale  represents  the  influence  of  imitation  in  politics.  It  is  not 
at  all  probable  that  all  these  men  or  any  considerable  number 
came  to  their  present  convictions  by  a  process  of  reasoning. 
On  the  contrary,  men  are  controlled  by  imitation  and  only 
when  they  need  to  justify  their  positions  do  they  begin  to 
reason  in  self  defense. 

In  art  not  only  may  the  scope  of  imitation  be  seen,  but  the 
selective  nature  also  of  intelligent  imitation  is  well  brought 
out.  It  was  claimed  in  discussing  the  nature  of  imitation  that 
in  its  higher  forms,  where  originality  is  most  clearly  mani- 
fested, the  model  tends  to  become  an  ideal.  This  maybe  more 
clearly  seen  in  what  we  shall  present  here  concerning  art.  It 
will  also  appear,  I  think,  that  the  works  of  art  are  not  due  to 
some  occult  power  from  which  they  come  out  full  grown  as 
Venus  from  the  waves,  or  as  Athena  from  the  head  of  Zeus. 
As  in  all  other  inventive  powers  and  products  of  mind,  they 
take  their  elements  from  sense  data  which  become  an  idea,  then 
an  ideal,  which  is  slowly  and  laboriously  evolved  from  the  first 
simple  model;  and  the  product  or  work  of  art  is  executed  in 
intelligent  imitation  of  the  model  or  ideal. 


27]  THE  SCOPE   OF  IMITATION  2/ 

1  The  arts  may  be  divided  into  the  purely  imitative  or  copy- 
ing arts,  as  mechanical  craft,  wax  figures,  colored  statues, 
artificial  flowers,  engravings,  etc.,  and  the  fine  or  creative  arts, 
poetry,  music,  painting,  etc.  The  fine  arts  are  all  imitative ; 
they  are  not  copies,  they  are  creations.  They  admit  of  the 
expression  of  an  idea  or  sentiment,  or  telling  of  a  story  which 
distinguishes  them  from  the  merely  imitative  arts.  De  Quincey 
says  that  poetry  takes  precedence  among  the  fine  arts,  that  its 
mode  of  imitation  is  least  material  and  farthest  removed  from 
sensible  objects.  It  merely  produces  the  images  of  objects  by 
abstract  and  indirect  means.  It  is  not  susceptible  of  being 
confounded  with  its  model.  Music  comes  next  in  order. 
Poetry  and  music  each  depend  for  their  interpretation  upon 
sentiment  and  mental  activity.  Painting,  which  imitates 
bodies  by  the  lineal  appearance  and  the  color  of  bodies,  is 
next  in  order  of  succession  and  is  followed  by  sculpture,  etc. 
In  these  last  the  model  and  what  becomes  the  image  are  more 
nearly  in  actual  contact.  The  fine  arts,  aside  from  literature, 
are  peculiar  in  their  power  of  expression.  They  consist  in 
representing  the  moral  by  the  physical,  intellectual  ideas  and 
affections  by  palpable  forms,  in  giving  thought  to  bodies. 
The  imitative  arts  copy  the  form ;  the  fine  arts  make  an  ideal 
imitation.  Ideal  embellishment  is  beyond  the  province  of 
mere  copying.  But  this  ideal  has  a  physical  basis.  Man  can 
not  create  something  out  of  nothing  or  form  without  a  model; 
that  is  the  prerogative  of  the  infinite  alone.  With  all  his 
powers  man  can  not  be  anything  but  an  imitator.  A  new 
idea  or  conception  is  suggested  to  the  mind  of  man  consciously 
or  unconsciously,  but  it  may  always  be  traced  to  its  origin. 
The  artist  must  go  to  the  immutable  laws  of  nature  to  get  the 
principles  that  are  essential  to  successful  imitation.  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  says  "  our  art  is  not  a  divine  gift  neither  is  it  a 
mechanical  trade."  Goethe  says  "  the  artist  must  hold  to 

1  M.  A.  Dwight,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Art ^  p.  11-33. 


2  8  IMITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [  2  8 

nature,  imitate  her.  He  must  choose  the  best  out  of  the  good 
before  him."  Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  story  giving  the 
origin  of  the  Corinthian  order  of  architecture — the  story  of 
the  artist  who  took  his  hint,  his  model,  from  the  basket  over- 
grown with  leaves.  He  idealized  the  object  presented  to  his 
notice,  adapted  it  to  a  specific  object  and  produced  a  work  of 
artistic  beauty  that  will  be  forever  preserved.  He  held  to  the 
very  essence  of  imitation  in  art,  to  represent  reality  by  its 
appearance  alone.  A  true  work  of  imitation  bears  some  im- 
press from  the  mind  of  the  artist,  and  thus  the  artist  conveys 
to  the  mind  of  another  his  conception  of  the  subject  repre- 
sented. His  idea  becomes  an  ideal  and  is  expressed  by 
imitating  it.  The  great  artist  is  distinguished  not  by  uncom- 
mon powers  of  mind  but  by  uncommon  combination  of 
powers — free  imagination,  fine  sentiment  both  moral  and 
intellectual,  clear  discrimination,  sound  reason  and  judgment. 
These  powers  in  combination  enable  the  artist  to  take  a  sense 
model,  idealize  it,  and  express  it  in  imitation.  His  imitative 
and  assimilative  power  enable  him  to  separate  the  essential 
from  the  accidental,  to  proceed  from  part  to  whole,  thus 
educing  an  ideal  nature  from  the  germs  of  the  actual. 

The  Greeks  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  works  of 
art.  To  what  extent  they  got  their  models  from  other  people 
is  not  known.  Layard  in  his  Assyrian  researches  has  brought 
to  light  many  specimens  of  artistic  works  which  probably  fur- 
nished models  to  the  artists  and  architects  of  ancient  Greece- 
Then,  too,  the  Greeks  possessed  a  remarkable  ability  for 
imitating  nature.  Aristotle  well  describes  their  conception  of 
art  in  his  definition :  "  A  work  of  art  is  an  idealized  copy  of 
human  life — of  character,  emotion,  action — under  forms  mani- 
fested to  the  sense."  The  perfection  of  art  works  among  the 
Greeks  consisted  largely  in  their  fixed  ideals  obtained  from 
nature.  1  Zeuxis  painted  grapes  so  perfectly  true  to  nature 

1  Thomas  Purdie,  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  12;   329. 


29]  THE  SCOPE  OF  IMITA  TION  2Q 

that  the  birds  came  and  pecked  at  the  fruit  on  the  canvas. 
Apelles  painted  horses  so  truthfully  that  animals  of  their  own 
kind  greeted  them  by  neighing.  Parrhasius  painted  a  curtain 
so  true  to  nature  that  his  competitor  took  it  for  a  real  curtain 
drawn  over  the  picture.  It  is  claimed  that  the  fine  arts  had 
their  origin  in  the  love  of  imitation  which  is  no  doubt  an 
original,  powerful  sentiment  or  instinct  of  our  minds.  How- 
ever, art  is  only  great  or  imitation  fascinating  in  proportion  to 
intellectual  elements  employed.  Goethe  says  the  poet  or 
painter  holds  up  a  mirror  to  material  objects — earth,  plants, 
animals,  mankind — and  catches  a  reflection  of  the  world 
around  him  which  is  itself  only  a  reflection  of  an  ideal.  Thus, 
fine  art  is  a  copy  of  a  copy  three  times  removed  from  truth. 

While  modern  ideals  differ  essentially  from  Greek  ideals, 
the  importance  of  imitation — to  choose  the  best  and  execute 
with  patience  and  skill — is  still  recognized.  William  M.  Hunt, 
one  of  America's  great  artists,  used  to  urge  his  studio  pupils 
to  study  the  best  pictures  over  and  over  again.  "  You  must 
set  yourselves  ahead  by  studying  fine  things.  I've  told  you 
over  and  over  again  whose  works  to  draw — Michael  Angelo, 
Raphael,  Diirer,  Holbein,  Mantagna.  Get  hold  of  something 
of  theirs.  Hang  it  up  in  your  room  ;  trace  it,  copy  it,  draw  it 
from  memory  over  and  over,  until  you  own  it  as  you  own 
'  Casabianca  '  and  '  Mary  had  a  Little  Lamb/  " 

The  great  Italian  artist  !  Leonardo  da  Vinci  happened  in  his 
boyhood  to  get  in  his  possession  that  inestimable  folio  of  draw- 
ings once  owned  by  Vasari.  This  folio  contained  certain 
designs  by  Verrocchio,  faces  of  such  impressive  beauty  that 
Da  Vinci  copied  them  again  and  again.  In  the  artist's  works 
in  later  life,  there  seems  to  be  a  touch  of  the  early  pictures  he 
copied  so  often  as  a  germinal  principle,  "  the  unfathomable 
smile,  always  with  a  touch  of  something  sinister  in  it."  From 
childhood  this  model  seems  to  have  developed,  defining  itself 

1  Pater,  Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance,  pp.  116-117. 


30  1MITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION 

more  and  more  clearly,  until  he  met  the  Florentine  lady,  the 
wife  of  Francesco  del  Gioconde.  She  seemed  to  give  living 
form  to  his  ideal  dream.  Present,  from  the  first  incorporeal  in 
the  artist's  thought,  dimly  traced  in  the  designs  of  Verrocchio, 
his  ideal  took  form  in  Mona  Lisa,  the  portrait  of  the  Florentine 
lady.  This  masterpiece  of  one  of  the  great  artists  of  the  world 
reveals  Da  Vinci's  mode  of  thought  and  work.  It  illustrates 
how  an  ideal  model  is  developed  in  a  master  mind,  its  slow 
growth,  and  its  final  execution  in  imitation.  It  also  illustrates 
how  an  ideal  was  attained,  is  adapted  and  used  again  and 
again,  for  the  facial  expression  of  Mona  Lisa  is  traceable  in  his 
other,  later  portraits. 

This  use  of  a  once  perfected  ideal  is  found  in  other  artists. 
The  face  of  little  St.  John  in  Botticelli's  "  Madonna  of  the 
Louvre  "  is  used  again  and  again  in  other  works  of  that  artist. 
Murillo  got  his  models  from  the  common  people  he  met,  and 
used  the  same  ideal  models  over  and  over  even  in  sacred  sub- 
jects. Any  one  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  compare  Cabanel's 
"  Queen  Vashti  "  and  his  "  Shulamite  "  will  not  fail  to  observe 
the  same  ideal  repeated  in  these  paintings.  The  same  thing 
may  be  observed  in  Vibert's  "  The  Reprimand "  and  in  his 
"  The  Startled  Confessor."  Most  of  Kensett's  paintings  and 
those  of  Inness  have  each  a  tone  that  will  enable  the  observer 
to  recognize  the  artist  in  his  work.  Or,  take  a  group  of  por- 
traits in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  and  a  common  model  may 
be  traced  through  all.  Compare  Reynolds'  portraits  of  "Lady 
Carew,"  "  Mrs.  Arnold,"  "  Mrs.  Angelo  ";  John  Hoppner's  por- 
trait of  a  "  Lady  ;  "  Richard  Beechey's  portrait  of  a  "  Lady ;  " 
Thomas  Lawrence's  "  Lady  Ellenborough ;  "  Robert  Pine's 
"  Mrs.  Reid ; "  Francis  Cote's  "  Lady  Hardwicke."  These  are 
all  works  of  artists  of  originality.  Yet  the  similarity  is  very 
striking.  A  similar  model  is  seen  in  each.  In  Reynolds' 
"Lady  Carew"  and  in  his  "  Mrs.  Angelo,'1  it  is  most  notice- 
able, except  possibly  in  Hoppner's  and  in  Beechey's  portraits 
of  ladies.  The  two  last  are  very  similar  in  tone,  expression, 


31]  THE  SCOPE  OF  IMITATION  ^l 

etc.  These  men  form  a  kind  of  school  in  art.  The  funda- 
mental principle  in  any  school  of  art,  or  of  literature  is  imita- 
tion. Among  the  master  artists,  it  is  selective,  intelligent, 
often  unconscious  imitation.  Among  the  second  or  third  rate 
artists,  imitation  is  the  cause  of  the  similarity  but  it  is  a  less 
intelligent,  a  more  mechanical  kind  of  imitation;  it  approaches 
nearer  to  what  we  term  copying. 

Literature  is  quite  as  fruitful  a  field  for  the  study  of  imita- 
tion as  that  more  generally  called  art,  which  we  have  just  been 
considering.  The  field  is  so  large  and  rich  in  material  that  it 
would  be  too  large  a  theme  in  itself  for  a  paper  like  this.  We 
shall  therefore  confine  ourselves  within  small  compass.  We 
can  not  do  more  than  suggest  some  of  the  productions  of 
recognized  literary  merit  and  the  intimate  relations  between 
imitation  and  originality.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
claim  here  made  is  that  there  is  very  little  absolutely  original. 
Originality  is  relative.  Only  one  person  in  a  million  or  in 
many  millions  can  produce  a  work  of  originality,  and  such  a 
person,  may  be,  only  once  in  a  life  time.  What  passed  for 
original  is  only  relatively  so,  and  in  this  synthetic  originality, 
imitation  is  a  large  factor. 

To  see  more  clearly  the  distinction  between  the  absolutely 
original,  such  as  only  the  genius  may  approach,  and  the  rela- 
tively original,  such  as  men  of  eminence  may  attain  and  ordinary 
people  may  approximate  at  least,  let  us  ask  the  question — what 
is  absolute  originality  ?  An  absolutely  original  work  must  con- 
sist in  something  which  can  be  likened  to  no  other  thing  that 
existed  previously.  A  work  to  be  perfectly  original  should  not 
merely  remind  us  of  no  other  work  of  the  same  class  but  pre- 
vent us  from  thinking  of  any  other  in  connection  with  it.  Such 
a  work  must  possess  characters,  a  turn  of  thought  and  of  senti- 
ment, and  a  style  wholly  its  own.  The  materials  in  the  man- 
agement of  which  this  originality  is  shown,  must  be  drawn 
from  nature  alone  and  be  referable  to  something  in  nature,  and 
be  interesting  to  the  mind  and  heart  of  man. 


3  2  I  MIT  A  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  |j  2 

If  we  try  the  great  literary  geniuses,  such  as  Chaucer,  Shak- 
speare,  and  Carlyle,  by  this  standard,  we  shall  find  that  each, 
to  use  James's  phrase,  exhibits  but  "  a  pepper  corn"  of  origin- 
ality, in  the  sense  in  which  we  are  now  using  the  term  origin- 
ality. Chaucer  certainly  borrowed  largely  from  Boccaccio  for 
his  "  Canterbury  Tales."  After  the  student  has  made  a  study 
of  Shakespeare  and  finds  how  he  laid  the  whole  world  under 
contribution,  he  will  certainly  feel  that  the  great  genius  is  not 
so  great  after  all.  Of  his  more  than  thirty-five  plays,  there  is 
one  plot  that  seems  to  be  Shakespeare's.  Carlyle's  "  Sartor 
Resartus  "  is  of  German  origin,  founded  upon  a  book  received 
from  a  German.  No  one  disclaims  the  originality  of  these 
men,  but  we  do  claim  that  it  consisted  largely  in  their  ability 
to  imitate,  to  see  the  right  model,  to  form  new  combinations 
using  this  model  as  a  base  for  operation. 

This  use  of  imitation  is  seen  in  most  great  authors,  especially 
in  their  most  notable  works.  It  has  been  said  that l  Bulwer 
Lytton  is  an  author  of  the  composite  kind,  owing  all  he  has 
attained  less  to  the  force  of  his  own  genius  than  to  his  valuable 
facility  of  imitating  others.  He  took  several  of  his  characters 
in  "  The  Caxtons  "  from  Sterne's  "  Tristram  Shandy."  Sterne 
in  his  turn  caught  much  of  his  humor  from  Rabelais  and 
others.  The  essential  things  in  "  Robinson  Crusoe"  delighted 
men  and  boys  five  or  six  centuries  before  De  Foe's  time. 
The  conception  seems  to  have  come  from  the  Arabs — a  child 
placed  upon  a  lonely  island  and  coming  by  degrees  to  a 
knowledge  of  every  thing.  "  Gulliver's  Travels  "  was  sug- 
gested to  Swift  by  the  writings  of  a  Frenchman,  Cyrano  de 
Bergerac.  Cyrano  wrote  the  history  of  the  sun  and  moon  as 
a  satire  on  the  philosophy  of  his  age.  He  treated  philosophy 
much  as  Cervantes  had  treated  chivalry.  A  trip  to  the  moon 
reveals  many  encounters  and  experiences  much  like  those  of 
Gulliver.  But,  Cyrano  was  not  the  original  of  Gulliver.  This 

1  Putnam's  Monthly ',  8;    113. 


33]  THE  SCOPE  OF  IMITATION  33 

may  be  found  in  Lucian's  <l  True  History."  Rabelais  imitated 
the  Greeks,  and  in  turn  was  imitated  by  those  who  came  after 
him.  Don  Quixote  is  an  old  legend  found  in  Lucian  and  in 
Aristophanes.  Besides,  earlier  than  Cervantes,  Chaucer  had 
expressed  similar  ideas.  The  Saxon  Caedmon  and  later 
Avitus  sang  "  Paradise  Lost  "  long  before  Milton.  Tennyson's 
"  Two  Voices  "  may  have  been  suggested  by  George  Fox. 

Indeed,  to  any  one  who  reads  attentively,  imitation  would 
seem  to  be  the  law  of  literary  progress  and  excellence.  Imita- 
tion in  literature  as  well  as  elsewhere  has  a  great  part,  and  we 
may  as  well  make  the  best  of  the  ability  to  imitate  in  a  practi- 
cal and  philosophical  way.  Imitation  can  not  be  said  to  be  a 
sign  of  weakness.  The  great  Shakspeare  and  Burns  are  among 
those  who  have  laid  most  determined  hands  upon  the  modes 
and  thoughts  of  others.  When  a  writer  improves  what  he 
imitates,  he  does  well;  but  when  he  fails  to  add  beauty,  we 
condemn  him.  New  light,  or  grace,  or  charm,  must  be  given. 
In  the  progress  of  the  mind,  in  all  departments  of  literature, 
we  find  imitation,  the  most  palpable,  in  the  books  we  most 
admire. 

The  scope  of  imitation  is  widest  and  doubtless  most  signifi- 
cant in  society,  in  what  goes  to  build  up  civilization.  In  the 
enlightening  or  civilizing  process,  there  are  two  opposing  and 
equally  prominent  forces  at  work.  The  one  is  the  conserva- 
tive force — to  keep  things  as  they  are ;  the  other  a  radical  or 
progressive  force — to  keep  things  changing.  Imitation  is  a 
factor  in  each.  Society  is  held  together  more  largely  by 
imitation  than  by  any  other  one  agency.  '  It  brings  the  newly 
born  members  in  line  with  the  average  behavior  of  their  kind. 
This  may  be  its  most  important  function  in  society.  Imitation 
is  also  progressive  in  its  function  in  society.  In  any  given 
social  state,  there  are  certain  well  recognized  standards  of 
conduct  and  behavior.  For  this  given  society,  progress  is 
possible  only  on  the  ground  that  there  be  in  it  some  members, 
more  vigorous,  more  active,  more  intelligent  than  the  others. 


34  IMITA  TION  IN  ED UCA  TION  [34 

These  members — the  skeptics,  the  socialists,  it  may  be — 
break  with  the  present  order  of  things,  with  the  accepted 
standards.  Such  persons  forge  ahead  of  their  fellows  and 
their  generation.  However,  unless  that  leveling  up  force — 
intelligent  imitation — comes  to  their  aid,  they  will  ever  be  re- 
garded as  cranks  and  fanatics.  Since  imitation  is  selective, 
chooses  the  best  models,  these  more  progressive  members  of 
society  will  be  taken  as  models  by  the  more  thoughtful  among 
the  other  members.  This  molding  influence  goes  down 
through  society  in  a  geometric  ratio.  These  intelligent,  zeal- 
ous, forceful  men  and  women  in  society,  who  set  the  models 
for  the  others,  are  the  leaven  in  society ;  the  fermentation,  the 
leavening  of  the  social  whole,  is  the  work  of  imitation. 

It  is  by  means  of  imitation  that  the  social  web  is  woven.  It 
comes  to  us  as  tradition.  Through  the  imitative  tendency 
and  ability,  we  receive  our  social  inheritance.  *  M.  Tarde 
points  out  that  phenomena  of  every  kind  can  be  known  only 
because  they  repeat  themselves.  In  physics  we  study  repeti- 
tion under  the  forms  of  undulation  of  vibration  ;  in  biology, 
under  the  forms  of  heredity,  or  the  transmission  of  life  and 
characteristics  from  cell  to  cell ;  in  sociology,  under  the  form 
of  imitation,  or  the  transmission  of  impulse,  feeling,  arid  idea 
from  individual  to  individual,  from  group  to  group,  from  gen- 
eration to  generation.  For  Mr.  Tarde  society  is  imitation 
through  and  through — one  ceaseless  round  of  imitation.  For 
him,  imitation  is  the  fundamental  characteristic  of  sociology. 
2  Prof.  Giddings  does  not  agree  with  this  conclusion.  He  is 
of  opinion  that  social  consciousness  is  the  fundamental  fact  of 
society.  But  he  says  if  imitation  is  not  fundamental  in  social 
relations  it  must  be  very  nearly  so.  His  reason  for  this  view 
is  that  imitation  is  not  peculiar  to  social  relations ;  it  is  present 
in  non-social  affairs  of  life  as  well  as  in  the  social.  3A11 

1  Les  lois  de  /'  imitation. 

2  Principles  of  Sociology,  p .  15. 

3  Principles  of  Sociology,  p.  100. 


35]  THE  SCOPE  OF  IMITATION  35 

activity  is  a  clash  of  atoms  or  of  thoughts.  Conflict  is  an 
essential  of  all  progress.  This  conflict  is  manifested  in  one  of 
two  forms.  First,  there  is  primary  conflict  which  is  conquest. 
Second,  there  is  secondary  conflict  which  is  contention.  The 
first  often  destroys,  the  second  simply  modifies.  All  evolution 
begins  in  primary  conflict  and  continues  in  the  higher  forms 
in  contention.  Death  usually  follows  the  first  form  ;  develop- 
ment, the  second.  When  two  armies  contend,  each  repeats 
the  maneuvres  and  many  of  the  tactics  of  the  other,  as  the  war 
in  South  Africa  at  the  present  time  well  illustrates.  When 
two  men  contend,  each  instinctly  or  selectively  repeats  the 
method  of  attack  and  defense  of  the  other  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree.  This  second  kind  of  conflict  is  often  seen  in  a  milder 
form.  The  unexpected  meeting  of  long  parted  friends  has 
sometimes  resulted  in  death.  You  meet  a  stranger,  conflict 
may  manifest  itself  in  a  flushing  of  the  face,  in  a  conscious 
thrill.  In  whatever  form  this  conflict  exhibits  itself  in  one,  it 
tends  to  repeat  itself  in  the  other.  Imitation  therefore  is  a 
part  of  every  conflict.  The  mode  of  conflict  instinctive  or  in- 
telligent is  followed  by  like  kind  of  imitation. 

Imitation  is  a  factor  in  society,  in  the  conflict  that  gradually 
assimilates  and  harmonizes  the  opposing  forces.  The  char- 
acteristic modes  of  thought  and  action  spread  from  individual 
to  individual.  However,1  while  imitation  softens  old  conflicts 
it  creates  new  ones.  Imitation  in  religion,  in  politics,  even  in 
scientific  thought,  may  set  brother  against  brother.  This  is 
taught  in  prophecy  and  exemplified  in  the  history  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion. 

In  society  as  everywhere  else  intelligent  imitation  is  never  a 
perfect  copy.  2  Like  waves  of  light,  it  is  refracted  by  its  media. 
The  nature  of  the  mind  of  the  imitator  and  the  environment  ot 
the  imitator,  each  tend  towards  differentiation.  When  the  con- 

1  Principles  of  Sociology,  p.  1 1 . 
3  Les  lois  de  /'  imitation,  p.  24. 


36  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  [36 

flict  produced  by  this  differentiation  results  in  a  combination 
due  to  the  contention  of  a  weaker  and  stronger  sentiment  and 
image,  we  have  the  essence  of  l  invention.  It  is  the  creation 
of  a  new  idea  and  a  new  2  practice  by  the  combination  of 
familiar  ideas  and  of  current  practices.  New  examples  and 
models  are  all  the  while  coming  into  existence  to  struggle 
against  the  established  customs  and  modes  of  imitation.  It  is 
in  this  way  that  both  stability  and  progress  owe  much  to  this 
factor.  Some  of  the  essential  elements  of  society — communi- 
cation, toleration,  alliance — are  each  largely  contributed  to  by 
developed  imitation.  The  chief  social  factor  of  the  economic 
life  is  imitation.  By  means  of  it,  sympathetic  association  is 
rendered  more  possible.  By  means  of  sympathetic  imitation  a 
social  sense  and  a  social  habit  are  evolved.  Likewise,  the  in- 
tellectual powers  of  voluntary  attention,  generalization,  abstract 
thought,  and  invention  are  developed  chiefly  by  association  of 
individuals.  3  These  presuppose  in  the  individual  the  con- 
sciousness of  himself,  and  that  consciousness  is  an  effect  of  his 
observation  and  imitation  of  individuals  like  himself. 

The  moral  sentiments — self  denial,  self  government — as  well 
as  the  intellectual  activities  are  largely  developed  through  imita- 
tion. Adam  Smith  said  :  "As  nature  teaches  the  speculators  to 
assume  the  circumstances  of  the  persons  principally  concerned, 
so  she  teaches  these  last  in  some  measure  to  assume  those  of 
the  speculators."  4  We  are  so  far  susceptible  to  suggestion  and 
so  far  imitative  in  all  matters  of  material  and  moral  well-being, 
that  we  desire  and  endeavor  to  live  at  least  as  well  as  the 
average,  fairly  well  to-do,  fairly  well-behaved  members  of  the 
community.  The  desire  to  enjoy  what  others  enjoy  and  the 
imitative  tendency  to  act  as  others  act,  are  strong  enough  in 

1  Les  lois  de  V  imitation,  p.  26. 
8  Principles  of  Sociologv,  p.  112. 
3  Principles  of  Sociology,  p.  122. 
*  Principles  of  Sociology,  p.  123. 


37]  THE  SCOPE  OF  IMITATION  37 

the  social  individual  to  impel  him  to  pursue  his  material  and 
moral  interests  as  diligently  as  most  others  pursue  theirs. 
This  combination  of  desire  and  diligence  is  the  basis  of  what 
economists  call  the  standard  of  living.  It  is  the  foundation  ol 
wealth  and  behavior  as  well  as  of  all  individual  advancement. 

It  would  be  very  interesting  and  instructive  to  know  how 
large  a  part  imitation  plays  in  psychology,  to  know  to  what 
extent  men  follow  the  lead  of  Leibnitz,  Locke,  Kant,  Wundt, 
and  James  in  the  method  and  thought  of  these  leaders.  How 
many  men  have  imitated  in  their  method  of  thought  and  re- 
search that  of  Darwin  in  reaching  his  conception  of  organic 
evolution?  How  many  have  imitated  Schleiden  and  Schwan 
in  the  cell  theory  ?  For  it  is  the  method  of  thought  and  work 
that  thinkers  imitate  most.  Here  imitation  yields  rich  returns, 
because  the  method  of  thinking  and  of  doing  is  the  most  valu- 
able lesson  we  can  learn  from  our  fellows.  When  we  compare 
how  few  men  have  hit  upon  a  new  method  in  physical,  in 
chemical,  or  in  biological  laboratories,  and  how  many  men 
have  imitated  these  few  happy  hits  we  can  in  part  begin  to  ap- 
preciate the  role  of  imitation  in  the  sciences. 

In  history,  religion,  politics,  art,  literature,  sociology,  and  in 
pure  science,  not  only  is  the  scope  of  imitation  exhibited,  but 
also  its  nature  and  significance  further  brought  out.  That 
imitation — an  element  playing  so  large  part  in  all  these  lines  of 
human  progress — should  be  discredited  for  so  long  by  so  many 
people  is  certainly  unfortunate  to  say  the  least.  If  it  is  as  im- 
portant a  factor  in  the  development  of  originality  in  these 
diverse  fields  of  human  thought  and  action  as  it  seems  to  be, 
why  should  it  not  also  be  important  in  the  process  of  school 
education  ? 


Ill 


THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION 

Something  of  the  significance  of  imitation  has  already  ap- 
peared in  the  discussions  of  the  previous  topics.  Before  we 
consider  any  special  phases  of  its  significance,  let  us  see  what 
some  of  the  prominent  educators  who  have  expressed  them- 
selves upon  this  subject  have  thought  of  the  imitative  process 
in  education. 

Aristotle  says  "  Imitation  is  innate  in  men  from  childhood ; 
for  in  this  men  difTer  from  other  animals  that  of  all  they  are  the 
most  imitative  and  through  imitation  get  their  first  teachings." 
In  emphasizing  the  importance  of  teachers  understanding  their 
pupils,  Quintilian  seems  to  think  that  knowledge  of  the  faculty 
of  imitation  and  of  the  laws  of  memory  are  equally  essential. 
If  we  remember  what  considerable  importance  he  attached  to 
memory,  we  may  fairly  well  get  his  estimate  of  imitation.  It 
would  be  one  of  the  first  educational  means.  Leibnitz  made 
imitation  an  efficient  factor  in  his  world  of  monads.  For  him, 
the  soul  was  a  monad  which  reflected  or  imitated  the  other 
monads  of  the  universe.  By  this  means  self-activity  manifests 
itself.  This  was  to  him  the  soul's  means  of  cognition.  While 
Montaigne  did  not  explicitly  evaluate  imitation,  he  made  a  tell- 
ing application  of  its  significance,  His  whole  educational 
philosophy  is  an  imitation  of  the  education  he  received  at  the 
hands  of  his  father. 

However,  it  is  only  within  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years  that 
educators  have  begun  to  see  more  clearly  than  the  earlier  edu- 
cators the  value  of  imitation  and  to  express  themselves  more 
distinctly  upon  this  subject.  l  Miss  Haskell  gives  a  clear 

^Pedagogical  Seminary ,  3;   30. 
38  [38 


39]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  39 

description  to  show  the  motor  function  of  imitation.  She  is  of 
opinion  that  imitation  is  the  mode  in  which  all  motor  impulses 
discharge  themselves.  The  energy  of  the  child  must  pass  from 
potentiality  to  actuality,  and  it  does  so  most  easily  and  effici- 
ently by  the  path  of  imitation.  1  Prof.  Royce  says:  "  The 
imitative  functions  in  their  proper  and  almost  inextricable  en- 
tanglement with  our  individual  and  temperamental  functions 
are  absolutely  essential  elements  of  all  our  mental  development, 
of  all  our  worth  as  thinkers,  as  workers,  as  producers." 
2  Hazlitt  is  of  the  opinion  that  imitation  gives  pleasure  to  the 
learner  by  exciting  curiosity  and  inviting  a  comparison  between 
the  object  and  the  representation.  It  opens  a  new  field  for  in- 
quiry and  leads  the  attention  to  a  variety  of  details  and  dis- 
tinctions not  perceived  before.  It  renders  an  object  that  is 
uninteresting  in  itself  a  source  of  pleasure,  not  by  the  repetition 
of  the  same  idea  but  by  suggesting  new  ideas,  by  detecting 
new  properties  and  endless  shades  of  differences.  3  Stout 
brings  out  a  similar  value  for  attention.  Imitation  is  a  special 
development  of  attention.  Attention  is  always  striving  after  a 
more  vivid,  a  more  definite,  a  more  complete  apprehension  of 
its  object.  Imitation  is  a  way  in  which  this  endeavor  may 
gratify  itself.  *  Smith  considers  imitation  the  means  by  which 
we  come  into  sympathy  with  knowledge,  sources  of  knowl- 
edge, and  with  our  natural  and  social  environment.  In  imita- 
tion there  is  an  association  of  ideas  or  mental  processes.  It  is 
a  mode  of  perception  or  cognition.  It  is  that  form  of  percep- 
tion in  which  the  mind  interprets  what  is  given  in  sensation. 
Imitation  of  idea  by  ideas  is  sympathetic  assimilation.  We 
make  the  inner  experience  of  another  our  own  experience.  The 
method  of  truth  in  his  opinion  is  sympathetic  imitation. 

1  The  Century  Magazine,  26;    107. 

2  Round  Table,  p.  1 1. 

8  Ma  nual  of  Psychology,  II;   271. 
*  Methods  of  Knowledge,  p.  170. 


40  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  [40 

Knowledge  must  consist  in  sympathetic  imitation  if  it  is  a  re- 
production of  what  constitutes  objects.  l  In  imitation,  how- 
ever slavish  it  may  appear,  there  is  sometimes  as  it  were  a  first 
soaring  of  the  liberty  of  the  child,  of  his  aspiration  after  the 
ideal. 

2  Imitation  marks  the  beginnings  of  education.  The  child 
who  begins  to  imitate  gives  evidence  of  self  consciousness.  He 
notices  the  activity  of  another  fellow  being  and  recognizes  that 
activity  as  proceeding  from  an  energy  or  will  power  akin  to  the 
power  which  he  himself  possesses.  He  proves  to  himself  the 
possession  of  that  power  by  imitating  the  action  in  which  he 
is  interested,  It  is  evident  that  imitation  is  a  kind  of  spiritual 
assimilation,  a  digesting  and  making  one's  own  of  the  acts  of 
another.  By  means  of  imitation  the  child  arrives  at  the 
fundamental  principles  which  originated  in  action.  Having 
found  this  in  his  own  mind,  he  has  his  energy  free  and  be- 
comes original.  3  Prof.  James  says  "  Man  has  always  been 
recognized  as  the  imitative  animal  par  excellence  .  .  .  Each 
of  us  is,  in  fact,  what  he  is,  almost  exclusively  by  virtue  of  his 
imitativeness.  We  become  conscious  of  what  we  ourselves 
are  by  imitating  others — the  consciousness  of  what  others  are 
precedes — the  sense  of  self  grows  by  sense  of  pattern.  The 
entire  accumulated  wealth  of  mankind — languages,  arts, 
sciences — passes  from  one  generation  to  another  by  social 
tradition,  each  generation  simply  imitating  the  last.  Inven- 
tion, using  the  term  most  broadly,  and  imitation  are  the  two 
legs,  so  to  call  them,  on  which  the  human  race  historically 
has  walked."  4  Tracy  says,  "  The  child's  attention  is  very 
easy  to  get  and  very  hard  to  hold.  This  double  fact  renders 
him  capable  of  education,  but  at  the  same  time  makes  his 
education  a  gradual  process  which  must  consist  largely  in  the 

1  Payne,  Compayre's  Introduction  on  Teaching,  p.  221. 

*  Harris'  Introduction  to  Taylor's  Child  Study,  p.  XI. 
8  Talks  to  Teachers,  p.  48. 

*  Psychology  of  Childhood,  p.  113. 


41  ]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  ^ 

formation  of  right  habits  in  him  through  imitation."  Guyau 
says  "  by  the  judicious  use  of  the  child's  imitative  suggesti- 
bility, we  may  make  of  him  almost  what  we  please."  Again, 
1  Guyau  says,  "  All  perception  is  more  or  less  reducible  to  an 
imitation,  to  the  creation  within  us  of  a  state  corresponding  to 
what  we  see  in  others." 

2  Holman  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  many  of  the  most 
valuable  things  the  human  race  has  discovered  have  been 
stumbled  upon,  as  it  were,  by  some  simple  imitation.  It  is 
quite  likely  that  the  origin  of  fire  may  be  explained  in  this 
way.  So  it  happens  that  individuals  soon  learn  that  it  is 
worth  while  to  look  out  for  helpful  examples  or  causes  and 
effects  and  to  expend  considerable  energy  in  trying  to  imitate 
them.  Thus,  imitation  prompts  the  will  to  action  and  guides 
it  by  practical  experience  and  knowledge.  Observation  and 
the  resulting  imitation  produce  many  of  the  highest  aids  to 
progress  and  are  thus  utilized  in  the  practical  affairs  of  life. 
Prof.  Butler  says,  in  his  lecture  course,  in  discussing  imitation, 
that  it  is  one  of  the  strongest  social  bonds.  Good  influences 
and  good  examples  have  value  only  in  so  far  as  they  are 
imitated.  Culture  and  refinement  can  be  taught  by  example 
alone ;  they  can  be  learned  only  by  imitation.  Imitation 
makes  up  the  major  part  of  the  child's  life  both  in  quality  and 
in  quantity,  in  his  language,  ideas  and  activity. 

A  reference  to  some  work  that  has  been  done  in  the  study 
of  imitation  will  further  illustrate  its  importance  and  prepare 
for  a  better  understanding  of  our  next  topic. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Russel,  of  Worcester  Normal,  has  published  a 
volume  which  gives  the  records  of  children's  imitations  ob- 
served by  the  normal  students.  The  volume  gives  more  than 
1 200  examples  of  imitation  of  children  from  one  to  twelve 
years  old.  The  subject  matter  of  this  book  has  been  worked 
over  and  expressed  in  graphic  form  in  six  charts  by  Miss  Car- 

1  Education  and  Heredity ',  p.  14. 

2  Education,  p.  185. 


42  I  MIT  A  TION  IN  EDUCA  TION 

oline  Frear.1  Her  purpose  was  to  discover  the  trends  and  age 
tendencies  in  the  imitative  activity  of  children.  In  some  of 
the  charts  she  distinguishes  three  kinds  of  imitation — direct, 
play  or  dramatic,  and  purposive  imitation.  I  shall  not  repro- 
duce the  charts,  but  simply  use  per  cents,  to  indicate  the  gen- 
eral position  and  directions  of  the  lines  on  the  charts.  The 
ages  of  the  children  who  were  observed  were  one  to  twelve 
years.  The  per  cents,  here  given  show  where  the  lines  start 
the  first  year  and  where  they  end  the  twelfth  year.  However, 
they  do  not  increase  or  decrease  regularly  as  the  per  cents, 
seem  to  indicate.  The  first  chart  shows  whom  the  child  imi- 
tates the  more  at  different  ages — adults  or  other  children: 
Adults,  82  per  cent,  1st  year;  rises  to  95  per  cent,  by  I2th 
year.  Children,  n  per  cent,  1st  year;  falls  to  o  per  cent, 
almost,  by  1 2th  year. 

The  second  chart  shows  that  the  child's  imitations  are: 
Direct,  70  per  cent  1st  year;  fall  to  8  per  cent  by  the  I2th 
year.  Play,  20  per  cent  1st  year;  rises  to  90  per  cent  by  I2th 
year. 

The  third  chart  shows  the  child  imitates  an :  Idea,  45  per 
cent  ist  year;  rises  to  80  per  cent,  by  I2th  year.  Actual 
thing,  55  per  cent  1st  year;  falls  to  20  per  cent  by  I2th  year. 

The  fourth  chart  shows  with  whom  the  child  plays :  Alone, 
35  per  cent.  1st  year;  rises  to  70  per  cent.  2d  year;  falls  to  10 
per  cent,  by  I2th  year.  Children,  9  per  cent  1st  year;  rises  to 
90  per  cent  by  I2th  year.  Adults,  55  per  cent.  1st  year;  falls 
to  o  per  cent  by  I2th  year. 

The  fifth  chart  shows  what  children  imitate  most  and  is 
based  on  play  imitation  :  Action,  85  per  cent  1st  year;  falls  to 
55  per  cent,  by  4th  year;  rises  to  94  per  cent  by  8th  year 
Oral  speech,  7  per  cent,  ist  year;  rises  to  26  per  cent  by  4th 
year;  falls  to  23  per  cent  by  8th  year.  Sound  and  action,  18 
per  cent.  1st  year ;  rises  to  24  per  cent.  6th  year ;  falls  to  o  per 
cent,  by  8th  year. 

1  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  4,  pp.  382-86. 


43]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  43 

The  sixth  chart  is  made  out  on  a  basis  of  direct  imitation 
and  shows  that  the  child  imitates  :  Action  and  speech,  53  per 
cent.  1st  year;  rises  to  85  per  cent.;  falls  to  80  per  cent,  by 
1 2th  year.  Action  alone,  45  per  cent.  1st  year;  falls  to  12  per 
cent,  by  I2th  year. 

The  facts  indicated  by  these  charts  are  such  as  to  com- 
mend them  to  careful  consideration.  I  believe,  on  the  whole, 
they  will  stand  the  test  of  reason  and  experience.  The  extent 
to  which  children  imitate  adults  rather  than  other  children,  as 
shown  in  the  first  chart,  is  of  practical  value  for  teacher  and 
parent.  The  second  and  third  charts  give  results  that  are  in 
evidence  of  the  thought  of  this  paper  as  to  the  nature  and 
significance  of  imitation.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  first 
years  of  the  child's  life  direct  or  perception  imitation  begins 
with  70  per  cent,  and  decreases  to  8  per  cent,  by  the  I2th  year; 
that  play  imitation,  which  is  a  higher,  less  mechanical  form, 
begins  with  20  per  cent,  and  rises  to  90  per  cent,  in  the  same 
time.  Imitation  of  an  idea  begins  with  45  and  rises  to  80  per 
cent,  while  the  more  mechanical  form,  imitation  of  the  actual 
thing,  begins  with  55  per  cent,  and  falls  to  20  per  cent.  The 
results  in  both  these  charts  show  that  the  faculty  of  intelligent 
imitation  increases  with  the  developing  powers  of  mind.  The 
progress  is  from  tendency  to  imitate  to  ability  to  imitate,  from 
a  disposition  to  copy  to  power  for  originality. 

It  was  shown  by  Miss  Frear's  first  chart  that  children  imi- 
tate adults  about  fifteen  times  as  much  as  they  imitate  other 
children ;  and  that  chart  gives  the  ratio  only  up  to  12  years  of 
age.  At  that  age,  the  child  practically  ceases  to  imitate  an- 
other child.  It  does  not  matter  whether  this  is  the  actual 
ratio  that  exists  or  not.  It  doubtless  is  not.  However,  it 
does  show  the  general  tendency — that  the  child  tends  as  it 
grows  older  to  choose  a  more  rational  model,  to  select  what  it 
thinks  is  the  best  to  imitate.  This  conclusion  verfies  and  is 
verified  by  the  experience  of  those  who  have  either  taught  or 
observed  children.  Many  teachers  whom  I  have  asked  for 


44  IMITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [44 

data  on  students  imitating  each  other,  say  they  could  give  a 
much  larger  number  of  examples  of  students  imitating  teachers. 
If  this  tendency  to  imitate  adults  more  than  their  fellow 
students  be  kept  in  mind  in  considering  the  data  below,  we 
may  get  a  more  nearly  correct  perspective  of  the  whole  of 
student  imitation. 

To  get  a  more  reliable  notion  of  student  imitation  of  their 
fellows,  I  selected  about  sixty  high-grade  boarding  schools. 
Most  of  these  were  preparatory  schools,  quite  a  number  of 
them  rank  as  colleges,  a  few  are  colleges.  These  schools  were 
selected  with  the  thought  that  imitation  found  among  their 
students  would  tend  to  prove  much  more  for  the  nature  and 
scope  of  imitation  than  the  same  amount  of  information  found 
in  ordinary  public  schools.  Of  course,  in  the  boarding  school 
it  can  more  readily  be  detected,  because  the  teacher  sees  more 
of  the  student's  life,  besides  the  students  come  in  contact  more 
with  each  other.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  influence 
of  the  teacher  would  be  increased  for  similar  reasons,  and  the 
ratio  of  tendency  to  imitate  adults  and  fellow  students  would 
not  be  seriously  affected.  These  schools  will  furnish  more 
favorable  evidence  for  imitation  than  public  schools  made  up 
of  all  classes.  For  it  is  fair  to  suppose  the  students  in  these 
schools  will  more  than  average  in  matters  of  intelligence  and 
individuality  with  public  school  pupils.  If  imitation  tended  to 
decrease  with  increased  intelligence  and  culture,  one  would 
find  little  or  no  imitation  in  these  schools.  So,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  presence  of  imitation  in  so  far  as  it  was  found 
in  these  schools,  would  lend  evidence  in  favor  of  our  main 
thesis:  (i)  that  imitation  is  a  characteristic  of  the  more  in- 
tellectual as  well  as  of  the  less  intellectual,  (2)  that  it  is  of 
much  wider  scope  than  we  are  apt  to  concede. 

The  purpose  of  the  questionnaires  sent  to  these  schools  was 
"  to  find  out  whether  there  are  certain  characteristics  whose 
possession  makes  a  boy  or  girl  likely  to  be  imitated."  Forty- 
five  schools  reported.  Thirty  of  this  number  gave  one  or 


45]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  45 

more  leaders  of  a  larger  or  smaller  group  of  students.  Fifteen 
schools  reported  there  was  no  such  leader  among  their 
students.  Just  how  man)''  of  these  fifteen  schools  failed  to 
interpret  the  questionnaire  aright,  I  do  not  know.  Some  of 
them  simply  gave  a  negative  answer  to  the  first  question. 
Others  said  there  was  no  such  leader  of  the  whole  school  but 
that  there  were  leaders  of  classes  and  small  groups.  Still  a 
few  seemed  to  take  the  term  imitation  in  a  menial  sense. 
They  indicated  this  by  saying  "  Our  students  possess  much 
personality.  We  take  care  that  they  have  high  ideals  set  be- 
fore them.  A  boy  would  be  considered  comtemptible  here, 
who  would  imitate  or  ape  another  boy.  We  cultivate  indi- 
viduality," and  similar  statements.  Some  of  the  statements 
clearly  indicate  that  the  leader  we  were  inquiring  for  was  in 
some  of  these  schools.  Others  indicate  the  leader  may  have 
been  there.  One  principal,  of  much  experience  and  close 
observation,  in  sending  in  the  report  of  his  school  said  :  "  I 
should  be  glad  to  know  if  any  report  no."  This  implies  there 
is  a  leader  or  leaders  in  every  school.  I  believe  his  inference 
is  correct.  Sometimes  the  leadership  is  on  a  very  small  scale. 
It  may  be  the  leader  has  but  one  person  manifestly  in  tow. 
To  say  the  least,  the  number  of  schools  in  which  there  are  no 
leaders  is  much  less  than  fifteen,  the  number  reported. 

Below  the  questionnaires  are  given  with  the  answers  tabu- 
lated after  each  question.  A  few  reports  did  not  seem  to  de- 
scribe any  individual  leader,  but  simply  gave  what  the  person 
making  the  report  considered  characteristics  of  leaders.  These 
answers  are  not  given.  A  few  answers  given  in  some  of  the 
reports  could  not  be  expressed  in  these  definite  terms.  Such 
are  not  included  in  the  tabulation. 

QUESTIONNAIRE    I 

I.  Is  there  now  in  your  school  any  boy  who  is  naturally 
imitated  by  other  boys,  or  who  may  be  called  a  leader  among 
the  boys  ? 


46  I  MIT  A  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [46 

Yes,  14  schools. 

No,  8  schools.     Total  reported,  22.     16  boys  described. 

If  your  answer  is  no,  please  be  sure  to  mark  it  No  and  re- 
turn the  same  to  us,  as  it  is  very  important  to  know  the  num- 
ber of  schools  where  there  is  no  imitation. 

If  your  answer  is  yes,  we  shall  be  very  much  pleased  if  you 
will  answer  the  remaining  questions,  or  as  many  of  them  as 
you  can. 

2.  How  old  is  he  ? 

Average  age  16  years  +. 

3.  Are  the  boys  who  imitate  him  larger  or  smaller,  as  a  rule, 
than  he  ? 

Larger,  I. 
Smaller,  3. 
About  same,  n. 

4.  Are  they  older  or  younger  than  he  ? 

Older,  i. 
Younger,  6. 
About  same,  9. 

7.  Is  he  on  the  base  ball  team  ? 

Yes,  7. 
No,  5. 

8.  Is  he  on  the  foot  ball  team  ? 

Yes,  10. 
No,  4. 

9.  Is  he  on  any  other  athletic  team  ? 

Yes,  8. 
No,  6. 

10.  Is  he  of  strong  emotional  temperament,  or  is  he  of  de- 
liberate, intellectual  temperament  ? 

Emotional,  6. 
Intellectual,  2. 
Deliberate,  5. 
Nervous,  2. 


47]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  ^ 

II.  Is  he  notable  for  boldness  or  daring? 
Yes,  8. 

No,  4. 
Fearless,  2. 
Courageous,  2. 

15.  Has    he   any    noticeable   peculiarities,  as   stammering, 
lameness,  crosseyedness,  etc.? 
Yes,  o. 
No,  1 6. 

The  replies  to  other  questions  showed  no  marked  difference 
between  the  boy  imitated  and  his  fellows  in  point  of  wealth, 
social  position,  fluency  of  speech,  rank  in  class,  mental  ability, 
or  moral  strength. 

QUESTIONNAIRE    II 

1.  Is  there  now  in  your  school  any  girl  who  is  naturally 
imitated   by  the  other  girls,  or  who  may  be  termed  a  leader 
among  the  girls  ? 

Yes,  1 6  schools. 

No,  7  schools.     Total  reported,  23.    14  girls  described. 
If  your  answer  is  no,  please  be  sure  to  mark  it  No  and  re- 
turn the  same  to  us,  as  it  is  very  important  to  know  the  num- 
ber of  schools  where  there  is  no  imitation. 

If  your  answer  is  yes,  we  shall  be  very  much  pleased,  if  you 
will  answer  the  remaining  questions,  or  as  many  of  them  as 
you  can. 

2.  How  old  is  she? 

2 — 13  years. 
4 — 1 6  years. 
2 — 17  years. 
5 — 1 8  years. 
I — 20  years. 
Average  age,  17  years. 


48  IMITA  TION  JN  ED UCA  TION  [^g 

3.  Are  the  girls  who  imitate  her  larger  or  smaller,  as  a  rule, 
than  she? 

Larger,  I. 
Smaller,  4. 
Both,  4. 
Same,  4. 

4.  Are  they  older  or  younger  than  she  ? 

Older,  o. 
Younger,  5. 
Both,  7. 
About  same,  2. 

5.  Does  she  spend  more  money  or  less  than  those  who 
imitate  her? 

More,  3. 
Less,  3. 

Pretends  more,  I. 
About  same,  6. 

6.  Has  her  family  wealth,  position  or  power  more  or  less 
than  the  families  of  those  girls  who  imitate  her? 

Yes,  3. 

No,  6. 

Pretends  more,  i. 

7.  Is  she  distinguished  in  any  athletic  games  or  exercises  ? 

Yes,  i. 
No,  6. 
Fond  of,  4. 
Luxurious  and  idle,  i. 

8.  Is  she  of  strong  emotional  temperament,  or  of  deliberate 
intellectual  temperament? 

Emotional,  9. 
Deliberate,  2. 
Intellectual,  3. 

9.  Is  she  of  marked  timidity  or  of  manifest  strong  desires? 

Assumes  timidity,  2. 
Strong  desires,  12. 


49]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  ^ 

10.  Is  she  notable  for  fluency  of  speech  in  conversation  ? 
Yes,  8. 

No,  2. 

Talks  well,  2. 

Enjoys  shocking  hearers,  i. 

1 1.  What  approximately  is  her  rank  in  class  ? 

High,  3. 
Good,  2. 
Av.,  6. 
Low,  very,  2. 

12.  In  general,  would  you  call  her  brighter,  abler  than  those 
who  imitate  her? 

Yes,  5. 
No,  9. 

Of  the  9,  but  confident,  I. 

but  clever,  I. 

but  assertive,  2. 

13.  Has   she  any  noticeable  peculiarities,  as  stammering, 
lameness,  crosseyedness,  etc.? 

Yes,  o. 
No,  14. 

14.  Is  she  strong  or  weak  morally  ? 

Strong,  2. 

Av.,  4. 

Weak,  3. 

High  ideals,  i. 

Strong  in  her  own  faith,  I. 

15.  Does  she  dress  in  a  showy  or  gaudy  manner? 

Gaudy,  2. 
Showy,  3. 
Well,  2. 
Good  taste,  4. 
Quiet  in  dress,  i. 


50  IM1TA  TION  IN  EDUCA  TION  [50 

16.  Does  she  sing  well  ? 
Yes,  6. 

Comic  songs,  2. 

No,  4. 

17.  Does  she  play  on  any  instrument  well  ? 
Yes,  2. 

No,  9. 

1 8.  Has  she  marked  dramatic  talent? 
Yes,  3. 

Good  mimic,  I. 

No,  7. 

19.  Is  she  distinguished  for  beauty  of  form,  features,  car- 
riage, voice? 

Yes,  6.  Beautiful  features,  I. 

No,  2.  Beautiful  carriage,  i. 

Beautiful  form,  2. 
Fascinating  manners,  2. 

These  answers  found  in  the  questionnaires  indicate  some- 
thing of  the  nature  of  imitation,  as  was  pointed  out  above.  In 
the  preparation  of  the  questions,  it  was  necessary  to  limit  them 
to  such  acts  as  could  be  seen  in  the  students.  The  internal, 
higher  forms  of  imitation  are  not  easily  detected.  This  latter 
kind  of  imitation  is  manifested  in  much  in  the  same  way,  and 
becomes  evident  in  degree  as  growth  of  intellect  and  charac- 
ter show  themselves.  It  is  of  slow  growth,  not  easily  ob- 
served, nor  is  its  progress  readily  estimated  in  a  given  time. 
Recognizing  these  limitations  of  the  questionnaire,  we  may  still 
see  in  the  answers  given  a  tendency  to  imitate  ideas  rather 
than  perceptions.  The  wide  scope  of  imitation  among  stu- 
dents is  very  apparent.  It  must  be  remembered  these  were 
not  the  only  leaders  in  these  schools,  nor  was  the  imitation 
confined  to  that  of  leaders.  This  fact  was  pointed  out  in  many 
of  the  reports  received.  Such  statements  as  these  in  the  re- 
ports indicate  this  :  "  Almost  every  class  or  group  of  students 
has  its  leader;  it  is  difficult  to  choose  the  student  most  imi- 
tated." 


^x]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  ^ 

The  questionnaires  bring  out  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  leader  more  clearly  than  they  indicate  either  the  nature  or 
the  scope  of  imitation.  The  question  why  some  people  are 
leaders  has  long  been  one  of  much  prominence  and  interest 
It  may  be  said  in  general  terms  that  strong  belief  and  enthu- 
siasm bring  followers,  that  the  leader  has  vigor  of  both  mind 
and  body,  that  he  has  often  an  over- mastering  will  expressed 
in  strong  desires.  It  may  be  seen  in  the  questionnaires  that 
most  of  the  imitators  of  the  leaders  were  younger  than  the 
leader  or  of  about  the  same  age  as  the  leader.  One  interesting 
case  is  given  where  one  boy  is  notably  the  leader  of  one  other 
boy,  who  is  both  larger  and  older.  The  report  says,  "  The 
leadership  seems  to  be  due  simply  to  the  superior  energy  and 
dash  of  the  leader.  The  boy  who  follows  is  in  all  respects  the 
superior — older,  larger,  more  refined,  having  more  money,  a 
better  student,  and  finer  looking."  In  general,  however,  size 
and  age  may  cause  a  boy  or  girl  to  be  imitated,  and  boys  may 
even  be  dominated  by  one  older  than  themselves.  It  is  a  very 
serious  matter  for  a  boy  to  be  placed  in  close  relation  with  an 
older,  coarser,  or  less  refined  person. 

Wealth  and  position  do  not  seem  to  be  elements  of  leader- 
ship. The  fact  that  a  large  majority  of  the  leaders  among 
boys  are  very  active  in  athletics  is  significant.  This  is  not  true 
of  the  girls.  And  the  difference  between  boys  and  girls  is  seen 
in  temperament.  The  boy  leaders  are  more  deliberate ;  the 
girls,  emotional,  strong  in  desires,  fluent  in  speech.  The  girls 
seem  to  choose  their  leaders  more  from  outward  appearances, 
as  seen  in  dress,  beauty,  etc.  The  boys  choose  their  leaders 
more  for  some  inner  characteristic,  such  as  boldness,  courage, 
energy.  Ability  and  rank  in  school  do  not  seem  to  be  essen- 
tials for  either  boys  or  girls  as  leaders.  It  also  seems  that  the 
leader  must  have  no  noticeable  physical  peculiarities.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  the  moral  characteristics  of  the  leaders.  I 
do  not  know  just  how  much  the  answers  here  do  show.  It  is 
evident  on  the  face  of  the  reports  that  "  morally  strong"  was 


ij  2  I  MIT  A  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [  5  2 

used  in  more  than  one  sense  by  those  who  made  out  the 
reports.  Some  took  morally  strong  as  synonymous  with 
morally  good  or  bad  ;  others,  morally  strong  to  mean  morally 
good.  Yet  the  reports  clearly  show  that  the  leader  may  not 
only  be  morally  weak,  but  in  very  many  cases  the  leader  is 
specifically  characterized  as  morally  bad.  This  phase  of  lead- 
ership would  be  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  profitable 
studies  for  further  investigation  by  parents  end  by  teachers. 
Imitation  is  such  an  ail-powerful  factor  in  the  realm  of 
morality  that  it  is  well  worth  while  to  find  more  positive  evi- 
dence in  this  matter.  For  example,  it  was  stated  in  some  of 
the  questionnaires  answered  that  the  students  who  possess  less 
will-power  tend  to  choose  morally  bad  leaders  rather  than  mor- 
ally good  leaders  to  imitate.  Whether  these  statements  were 
true  or  not,  further  study  of  this  subject  is  needed  ;  for  not  only 
the  individual  life,  but  the  community  and  social  national  life 
as  well,  in  moral  ideas,  are  so  largely  determined  by  leaders  in 
business,  in  politics,  in  state,  in  war.  Can  we  estimate  the  in- 
fluence of  morally  bad  students  or  teachers  ?  Much  less  can 
we  estimate  how  many  persons  are  infected  by  a  morally  bad 
political  leader,  state  official,  representative  or  senator  in  Con- 
gress. Any  one  who  desires  may,  in  a  small  way,  get  some 
idea  of  the  influence  of  morally  bad  men  in  high  places.  To 
get  some  notion  of  this  influence,  one  needs  only  to  approach 
less  prominent  men  than  those  cited,  whose  conduct  may  be 
called  questionable.  The  matter  of  such  conduct  is  no  sooner 
raised  than  these  less  prominent  men  will  refer  you  to  a  long 
list  of  more  prominent,  or  equally  prominent  men,  who  de- 
ported themselves  in  a  similar  manner.  This  matter,  how- 
ever—  imitation  and  morality  —  will  be  considered  somewhat 
more  in  detail  in  a  later  section  of  this  paper.  The  following 
section  will  continue  the  study  of  imitation  by  the  question- 
naire method  in  the  training  of  teachers. 

The  training  of  teachers  affords  a  fruitful  field  for  the  study 
and  application  of  imitation  in  education.     It  will  be  my  pur- 


53]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  53 

pose  here  to  show  that  imitation  properly  understood  and 
applied  may  contribute  much  to  the  solution  of  practical  prob- 
lems in  the  training  of  teachers.  Among  these  problems  there 
is  the  difficulty  of  securing  natural  conditions  and  ample  op- 
portunity for  pupil  teaching,  and  the  unwillingness  of  a  suffi- 
ciently large  number  of  persons  to  go  through  so  long  appren- 
ticeship in  the  training  schools.  And,  in  consequence  of  this 
unwillingness,  very  few  teachers  have  any  training  at  all. 
Then  there  is  the  economic  problem.  The  term  economic  is 
used  here  in  a  liberal  sense.  It  refers  in  part  to  the  cost  in 
terms  of  money,  but  it  has  reference  especially  to  the  cost  in 
terms  of  time  and  energy.  The  waste  in  time  and  energy  in 
the  training  of  teachers  is  no  small  amount,  as  I  shall  try  to 
show. 

The  questions  then  to  be  considered  are :  How  will  imita- 
tion aid  in  the  solution  of  the  practical  problems?  Where  is 
this  waste  in  training  of  teachers  ?  How  will  imitation  effect 
a  conservation  of  time  and  energy  ?  To  get  the  whole  ques- 
tion before  us  and  to  indicate  what  imitation  of  an  intelligent 
kind  may  contribute  in  answer  to  these  questions,  I  shall  sub- 
mit the  results  of  two  questionnaires.  These  questionnaires 
were  placed  in  the  hands  of  only  such  teachers  as  were  in  posi- 
tions to  give  reliable  data.  The  answers  came  from  many  dif- 
ferent states  and  represent  more  than  forty  different  schools 
and  school  systems.  Form  III,  given  below,  was  answered  by 
24  grade  teachers,  36  normal  teachers,  and  14  high  school  and 
college  teachers.  So  far  as  the  answers  could  be  definitely  and 
accurately  tabulated,  they  are  given  after  each  question.  A 
few  teachers  did  not  answer  all  the  questions  and  some  answers 
given  could  not  be  classified. 


54 


IMITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION 


[54 


QUESTIONNAIRE    III 

I.  Please  indicate  what  courses  you  have  taken  as  a  student. 


Normal 
Teachers. 


H.  & 

College 
Teachers. 


Total. 


32 
28 

7 


65 

50 
25 


Grade 
Teachers. 

a.  In  High  School  or  its 

equivalent    ....     19 

b.  In  Normal  School,     .     17 

c.  In  Training  Class,  .    .     16 

d.  How  many  years  have 

you  taught?     ...     12  Av.      12  Av.      10  Av. 

2.  Please  classify  your  past  teachers  as  accurately  as  you 
can  "according  to  the  following  points,  giving  under  each  point 
the  number  of  men  and  of  women,  kind  of  school  as  grades, 
high  school,  normal  school,  etc.,  in  which  such  teachers  in- 
structed you : 

Kind  of  school. 

No.  of 
Women. 

a.  Favorite  teachers,  151 

b.  Good  teachers,    .    235 

c.  Indifferent    teach- 

ers,     172 

d.  Poor  teachers,    .     105 

3.  Did  you  have  any  favorite  teachers  whom  you  did  not 
consider  skillful  in  methods  of  instruction? 

Yes,  36. 

No,  32. 
In  government? 

Yes,  33. 

No,  32. 
In  either  instruction  or  government? 

Yes,  14. 

No,  26. 


No.  of 

Normal 

High 

Men. 

Grades. 

School. 

School. 

College. 

I78 

22 

55 

27 

30 

246 

51 

49 

15 

68 

138 

45 

26 

34 

39 

87 

26 

22 

9 

3i 

55]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  55 

4.  What  characteristics  made  them  favorites  of  yours  ? 

Most  of  the  answers  were  expressed  in  these  terms — "  kind- 
ness," "interest/'  "  sympathy,"  "  enthusiasm,"  "justice,"  "cor- 
diality," "  sociability,"  "  good  manners,"  etc. 

5.  Do  you  hold  in  mind  any  teachers  as  models  in  method 
of  instruction  and  of  government  whom  you  more  or  less  con- 
sciously strive  to  emulate  ? 

Yes,  66. 
No,  3. 
If  so,  give  such  as  follows  : 

No.  of  teachers.  No  of  models  found  in  th 

a.  Women,  73.  r  Grades,  30. 

b.  Men,  124.          Kind  of      I  Normal  53. 

School    i  High  School,  25. 
^College,  52. 

c.  Add  any  whom  you  hold  in  mind  as  models  in  some 

one  subject  or  in  government  alone  as  follows : 

No.  of  models  found  in 
Govern-  ^Grades,  30. 

No.  of  teachers.  Subject      ment.   Kind  of   I  Normal,  50, 

a.  Women,         59  37         school  j  High  School,  1 8. 

b.  Men.  87  65  ( College,  48. 

6.  Did   those   teachers   whom  you  hold  as  models  differ 
from  your  other  teachers  in  academic  or  professional  acquire- 
ments ? 

Yes,  29. 
No,  1 8. 

7.  Did  they  require  more  or  less  response  from  you  as  a 
student  than  other  teachers  ? 

More,  45. 
Less,  1 6. 

8.  Were  they  more  or  less  exacting  in  their  requirements  of 
you  than  the  other  teachers  ? 

a.  In  the  assigned  work. 
More,  44. 


5  6  1MITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [56 

About  same  or  less,  12. 

b.  In  conduct  or  deportment. 

More,  36. 

About  same  or  less,  15. 

9.  In  the  following  list  check  all  those  things  you  are  aware 
of  imitating   in  your  past  teachers;   use   figures — I,  2,  3 — to 
indicate  something  of  the  relative  degree  : 

No.         No.  No.      No. 

Ans.     Points.  Ans.  Points. 

a.  Assigning  les-  /.  Calm    demeanor  37       78 

sons 33       62      k.  Emotional      de- 

b.  Reviewing     work  33       68  meaner    .    .    .     u       22 

c.  Questioning     pu-  /.  Petulancy  ...       6       10 

pils 48      109      n.  Sarcasm     .    .    .     18       38 

d.  Work    at    black-  o.  Scolding    ...     12       18 

board    ....     37       75     Commending      .    .     33       65 

e.  Using  apparatus  .11        15      /.  Manifested  sym- 

f.  Beginning  a  sub-  pathy  ....     30       56 

ject 29       58      q.  Placing  emphasis 

g.  Movements  about  on  given  points 

room     ....     22       44  of  subject  matter  40       91 

h.  Gestures      ...       8         9 
i.  Facial   expression   n        15 

10.  In  teaching  the  different  subjects,  as  spelling,  reading, 
history,  etc.,  do  you  find  you  tend  to  imitate  more  in  some 
than   in   others  ?     If  so,  name  the,  say  five,  subjects  of  most 
marked  imitation  in  a  decreasing  series. 

Answers  varied  too  much  to  admit  of  any  statement  in  brief 
form. 

11.  Have  you  had   any  teachers   considered  good  by  you, 
whom  you  do  not  imitate? 

Yes,  46. 
No,  14. 

12.  Representing  all  your  imitative  tendency  by  100,  mark 


57]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  57 

the   per   cent,   of  your   imitation   of  the   following   types    of 
teachers,  so  that  the  sum  of  per  cents,  will  equal  ico: 

a.  Teachers  of  intellectual  temperament,  64  Ans.     Av. 

38  per.  cent. 

b.  Teachers  of  emotional  temperament,  64  Ans.     Av. 

19  per  cent. 

c.  Teachers  of  strong  will,  64  Ans.     Av.  43  per  cent. 

13.  As  in  question  12,  mark  the  amounts  of  your  tendencies 
to  imitate : 

a.  Your  past  teachers,  65  Ans.     49  per  cent.  Av. 

b.  Model  or  other  school  work  seen,  65  Ans.     51  per 

cent.  Av. 
(13)  Classified  :     Grade  Normal  High  &  College 

Teachers.       Teachers.  Teachers. 

21  Ans.  32  Ans.  12  Ans. 

a.  40  per  cent.         63  per  cent         46  per  cent. 

b.  60  per  cent.         37  per  cent.         54  per  cent. 

14.  Again,  as  in  question  12,  mark,  as  accurately  as  you  can, 
the  percentage  of  your  professional  acquirements  from  the  fol- 
lowing sources : 

An  estimate  of  41  Answers  of  25  teach - 
teachers  who  had  ers  who  had  train- 
no  practice  ing  class  work  as 
school  work.  pupil  teachers. 

a.  Imitation  of  past  teachers  .    .    25  per  cent.      21  per  cent. 

b.  Imitation  of  school  work  seen,  22       "  23       " 

c.  Theory  and  practice  of  educa- 

tion studies 20       "  20       " 

d.  Practice  school  or  class  work 

done 33       "  36       " 

A  few  suggestions  here  may  assist  in  getting  the  import  of 
the  questions  and  the  significance  of  the  answers.  The  pur- 
pose of  question  (2)  was  to  find  about  what  ratio  the  number 
of  teachers  in  (c)  and  (d)  bears  to  the  number  in  (a)  and  (b\ 
and  to  find  in  what  kind  of  schools  these  good  or  poor  teach- 
ers are  most  abundant.  It  will  be  found  that  this  ratio  is 


5  8  IMl TA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [53 

nearly ;  or  the  ratio  of  indifferent  and  poor  teachers  to  the 
whole  number  of  teachers  is  ^  nearly.  This  means  inefficient 
teachers  about  2  days  per  week  during  the  school  life  of  the 
pupils,  or  about  4  months  in  the  year.  The  classification  of 
teachers  according  to  schools  is  not  complete.  Many  answers 
could  not  be  tabulated.  Only  those  are  given  about  which  I 
could  be  sure.  However,  I  do  not  think  this  affects  the  con- 
clusions that  may  be  drawn.  If  we  compare  the  kinds  of  schools, 
we  find  the  schools  rank  in  efficiency  in  this  order :  normal 
first,  college  second,  grades  third,  high  schools  fourth.  The 
normal  ranks  high  above  any  other;  the  grades  and  high 
school  rank  very  low,  with  little  difference  in  favor  of  the 
former. 

The  fifth  question  is  probably  the  most  valuable  one  in  the 
list  and  the  answers  are  most  significant.  It  contributes  the 
most  reliable  data  for  our  subject.  It  gives  actual  facts  and,  it 
must  be  noted,  it  presents  but  the  minimum.  All  unconscious 
imitation  and  all  those  undesirable  models,  of  which  we  found 
so  many  in  question  (2)  and  which  we  find  ourselves  imitating 
in  spite  of  our  efforts  not  to  do  so,  must  be  added  to  get  the 
sum  total.  It  is  very  difficult  to  get  a  just  notion  of  the  bad 
models  imitated.  In  question  (9),  (h],  (/),  (m),  and  (ri)  were 
introduced  for  this  purpose.  Most  teachers  would  not  care  to 
put  themselves  on  record  in  this  matter.  There  were  not  many 
teachers  to  whom  I  could  explain  that  an  answer  to  one  of 
these  meant  simply  that  they  found  themselves  doing  such 
things  in  imitation  in  spite  of  their  desire  not  to  imitate.  Since 
most  answers  that  I  received  to  these  four  points  came  from 
the  teachers  to  whom  this  explanation  was  made,  I  am  led  to 
believe  that  the  actual  facts  would  give  a  much  larger  number 
of  answers  and  counts  to  these  points,  if  the  explanation  had 
been  given  to  all  the  teachers.  In  this  question  (9),  the  figures 
in  the  first  columns  represent  the  number  of  teachers  who 
checked  the  respective  points  as  imitated  by  themselves  ;  the 
figures  in  the  second  columns  give  the  sums  of  the  counts — i, 


59]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  59 

2,  3 — as  the  points  were  checked.  These  points  were  asked 
for  not  so  much  for  the  value  of  the  subject  matter  obtained  as 
to  get  some  real  data  to  show  that  imitation  does  exist  on  a 
large  scale.  However,  these  answers  do  indicate  much  besides 
this.  They  show  that  intellectual  and  moral  characteristics  of 
teachers  are  imitated  as  well  as  the  more  mechanical,  that  any 
phase  of  the  teacher's  acquired  outfit  may  come  through  imi- 
tation. 

The  answers  to  question  (11)  are  of  value.  However,  the 
value  rests  upon  supposition.  This  hypothesis,  that  every 
good  teacher  will  be  imitated,  is  supported  by  abundant  evi- 
dence throughout  this  paper.  There  is  much  evidence  to  show 
that  a  good  model  is  always  imitated  and  a  bad  model  often 
imitated.  If  we  take  this  view,  the  answers  in  this  question  in- 
dicate that  the  unconscious  imitation,  that  should  be  added  to 
the  conscious  imitation  in  question  (5),  is  a  large  factor.  And 
if  to  the  unconscious  imitation  of  good  models,  the  conscious 
and  unconscious  imitation  of  bad  models  be  added,  we  have  a 
just  estimate  of  the  entire  influence  of  imitation  in  the  training 
of  teachers. 

In  questions  (13)  and  (14),  we  have  the  four  points  to  be 
considered  in  the  training  of  teachers.  In  question  (13),  the 
answers  of  65  teachers  are  given  with  the  average  per  cent,  for 
each  point.  The  answers  are  also  given  according  to  the  kind 
of  teachers  giving  them.  I  am  of  opinion  the  results  are  fairly 
accurate,  that  normal  teachers  do  imitate  their  former  teachers 
more  than  either  grade  or  high  school  and  college  teachers 
imitate  theirs.  Many  high  school  and  college  teachers  said  in 
their  answers  that  much  of  their  imitation  was  of  their  associ- 
ates. The  grade  teachers  have  a  much  better  opportunity,  in 
many  cases  more  need,  to  imitate  work  seen  than  normal 
teachers.  In  question  (14)  the  purpose  was  to  get  the  four 
points  evaluated  by  several  groups  of  competent  teachers,  that 
results  might  be  compared.  In  the  first  column,  the  answers 
of  41  teachers  are  given  in  average  per  cents.  These  teachers 


60  1MI7A  T20N  IN  ED  UCA  TION 

had  no  practice  school  training.  Their  answers  are  based  in 
(d)  upon  what  they  have  gained  by  experience  in  school  work 
while  teaching.  The  validity  of  these  answers  may  be  ques- 
tioned. This  would  be  especially  true  if  they  stood  alone,  but 
taken  with  three  other  groups  they  lend  much  to  the  weight  of 
evidence.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  none  of  the  evi- 
dence in  this  paper,  or  all  taken  together,  is  thought  to  be 
sufficient  to  demonstrate  anything.  The  kind  of  truth  we 
are  here  seeking  cannot  be  demonstrated  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  term.  This  paper  deals  with  probable  and  not  with  de- 
monstrable evidence ;  and  its  purpose  is  to  try  to  show  where 
the  weight  of  evidence  lies  in  the  influence  of  imitation  in  edu- 
cation. In  this  sense,  and  taken  with  the  other  data  given, 
these  answers  have  value. 

In  the  second  column  are  the  answers  of  25  teachers  who 
have  had  practice  school  training.  The  evidence  given  in  this 
column  is  for  this  same  reason  more  reliable  than  that  in  the 
first  column.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  average  per  cents 
do  not  vary  much  in  the  two  columns,  and  where  there  is  a 
difference,  it  is  found  just  where  reason  would  look  for  it. 
This  fact  lends  weight  to  the  whole  evidence.  These  four 
points  will  be  found  in  the  next  questionnaire,  so  any  further 
consideration  of  them  may  be  deferred  until  we  have  seen  the 
results  in  form  IV. 

The  purpose  of  Questionnaire  IV.  was  to  get  evidence  on 
the  influence  and  value  of  imitation  in  the  training  of  teachers 
from  those  who  have  had  much  experience  in  training  schools. 
The  answers  here  represent  24  training  schools,  and  were 
given  by  66  critic  and  model  school  teachers,  and  by  22  heads 
of  departments,  such  as  professors  of  education,  principals  of 
normal  schools,  and  principals  of  training  and  model  schools. 
Answers  from  professors  of  education  and  from  principals  of 
normal  schools  are  included  in  the  22  heads  of  departments 
only  where  such  professors  and  principals  have  under  their 
direction  a  model  or  training  school.  The  answers  in  this 


6i]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  £>l 

form  are  tabulated  after  each  question  as  in  the  other  forms. 
Most  of  them  may  be  easily  interpreted. 

QUESTIONNAIRE  IV. 

Model  School  and  Critic  Teachers. 

1.  Do  your  pupil  teachers  tend  to  imitate  the  teachers  who 
give  them  their  academic  instruction,  while  doing  your  work 
in  the  training  school  ? 

Yes,  43- 

No,  oo. 

Very  little,  12. 

2.  If  you  give  model  lessons,  do  they  tend  to  imitate  you  ? 

Yes,  54. 

No,  oo. 

Very  little,  12. 

3.  Check  all  of  those  things  which  you  have  noticed  your 
pupils  imitating. 

a.  Mannerisms 33    k.   Austerity 22 

b.  Distribution  of  material  .51     /.    Slang 8 

c.  Use  of  devices 57    m.  Gesture 20 

d.  Use  of  illustrative  mater-          n.  Gentleness 24 

ial  .    .    .  ....  50  o.  Polish 13 

e.  Dealing  with  disorder  .  .  50  p.  Facial  expression.   .    .    4 

f.  General  plan  of  lessons   .  47  q.  Add    any    others    you 

g.  Correction  of  pupils' work.  25          may  have  noticed. 

h.  Artificial  dignity  .    .    .    .  16         Moderation I 

i.  Naturalness 20         Academic  method  ...     i 

j.    Tone  of  voice 30 

4.  Do  pupils  who  imitate  more  or  less  acquire  good  meth- 
ods of  instruction  and  of  government  more  or  less  rapidly  and 
easily  than  those  who  do  not  imitate  ? 

More,  46. 

Less,  5. 

Depends  on  pupils,  6. 


62  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  Vfa 

5.  In  estimating  a  pupil  teacher,  do  you  regard  favorably  or 
unfavorably  his  power  of  imitating  ? 

Favorably,  52. 
Unfavorably,  5. 
If  not  too  far,  6. 

6.  Using  i,  2,  3  and  4  —  4  representing  highest  degree  — 
mark  the  following  points  to  indicate  the  sources  of  acquired 
skill  as  you  see  it  in  your  pupil  teachers. 

a.  Imitation  of  former  teachers.  17  %  ~\  „ 

e  These  represent   the 

b.  Imitation  of  model  or  other  f 

.  average  per  cents,   of 

school  work  seen  ...    27  %    V 
~,,  .  ...  '44  answers  by  critic 

c.  Theory  and  practice  studied.  22  % 

,   _  and   model  teachers. 

a.  Practice  school  work  done  .    34  % 

These  same  four  points  answered  by  16  heads   ! 

I  b    2 "\  ff 
of  departments  representing  12  different  institu-   \ 

tutions. 

J  d.  30  % 

7.  Have  you  noted  any  difference  between  pupils  coming  to 
you   from    relatively   poor  schools   and   teachers,  and   pupils 
coming  from   relatively   good    schools  and    teachers,   in    the 
facility  with  which  they  acquire  skill  in  teaching  ? 

Yes,  50. 
No,  2. 

8.  If  there  is  any  difference,  to  what  would  you  attribute 
such? 

The  answers  were  in  such  terms  as  "  better  teachers," 

"  better  training," 
"  better  models." 

9.  There  is  practice  teaching  under  supervision  followed  by 
criticism  of  work;  then,  there  is  class-work  done  by  a  skilled 
teacher  and  seen  by  pupils  under  supervision  of  critic  teacher, 
the  lesson  being  discussed  later  in  the  class  conducted  by  the 
critic    teacher.     In    training    teachers  which    of    these    two 
methods,   calling  them   such,  should   receive  more  emphasis 
and  time  ? 


63]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION 


First,  .    .    .  45.    f    These  are  answers  of  critic  and 

Second,  .    .     8.    I  model  teachers. 

First,  ...     9.    f    These  are  answers  of  heads  of 

Second,  .    .     8.   \  departments. 

10.  If  pupils  who  are  to  become  teachers  received  their 
entire  academic  education  under  none  but  the  most  skillful 
teachers,  do  you  think  there  would  be  any  gain  in  time  and 
energy  in  their  professional  training? 

Yes,  64. 

No,  oo. 

The  columns  of  figures  in  question  (3)  give  the  number  of 
teachers  who  have  observed  their  pupil  teachers  imitate  in  one 
or  more  of  these  ways.  What  was  said  of  the  purpose  of  ques- 
tion (9)  in  form  III,  and  the  value  of  the  answers  there  given 
applies  to  this  question  and  to  these  answers. 

In  questions  (4)  and  (5),  we  have  the  most  reliable  and  sig- 
nificant data  given  in  this  form.  The  answers  are  decidedly 
in  favor  of  a  proper  use  of  imitation  in  the  training  of  teachers. 
They  indicate  much  as  to  the  nature  and  the  possibility  of  im- 
itation. The  experience  and  observation  of  those  who  an- 
swered these  questions  in  the  affirmative  go  to  prove  that 
imitation  does  bring  out  and  develop  originality,  that  good 
models  imitated  make  development  of  individuality  and  per- 
sonality surer  and  more  rapid  in  the  training  of  teachers.  And 
it  should  be  noted  here,  that  if  this  principle  holds  good  in 
training  teachers,  it  probably  is  equally  valid  in  every  other 
phase  of  education. 

The  two  remaining  questions  to  which  I  desire  especially  to 
call  attention  are  (6)  and  (9).  Question  (6)  is  the  same  one  we 
had  in  form  III.  Here  it  is  answered  by  44  model  school  and 
critic  teachers  and  by  16  heads  of  departments.  The  following 
tables  repeat  the  answers  of  the  126  teachers  to  this  question. 
by  groups  for  more  convenient  study  and  comparison  : 


64  IMITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  7  ION 


a.  Imitation  of  former  teachers,  .     2^%       21%        \f%       28  # 

b.  Imitation  of  model  and  other 

school  work  seen,     .    ...    22%       2$%        27%       23  # 

c.  Theory  and  practice  studied,  .     20%        20%       22%        19% 

d.  Practice  school  work  done,     .     30$,        36%        34$,        30$ 
Total  imitation  by  (a)  and  (b},  47$,       44^        44$,        51$ 
Total  acquirements  by  (c)  and 

(d)      ..........     53*       56*       56*       49* 

Column  (i)  gives  answers  of  41  teachers  who  had  no  prac- 
tice training. 

Column  (2)  gives  answers  of  25  teachers  who  had  practice 
training. 

Column  (3)  gives  answers  of  44  critic  and  model  teachers. 

Column  (4)  gives  answers  of  16  heads  of  departments. 

The  answers,  or  average  per  cents.,  in  these  tables  here  re- 
peated do  not  vary  more  than  would  be  expected.  The  per 
cent,  of  (b)  in  column  (3)  is  high,  but  if  we  remember  that 
model  teachers  place  much  emphasis  upon  model  school  work 
seen,  the  per  cents  would  seem  to  represent  the  facts.  It  is 
significant  that  these  estimates  coming  from  four  different 
groups  of  teachers,  and  from  as  many  different  standpoints,  so 
nearly  agree.  It  certainly  adds  much  to  the  validity  of  the 
evidence  and  indicates  that  the  true  value  of  these  four  points 
in  the  training  of  teachers  is  somewhat  approximately  given. 
The  truth  as  to  the  value  of  imitation  is  not  far  from  these 
results.  It  will  be  seen  that  approximately  T5T  of  the  teacher's 
acquired  fitness  for  teaching  comes  through  imitation,  that 
about  T6T  comes  through  the  means  now  generally  employed 
in  the  training  of  teachers.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out 
that  unconscious  imitation  is  a  large  factor  in  every  activity  of 
life.  This  large  factor  is  not  included  in  these  results.  How- 
ever, the  results  as  here  given  are  sufficient  for  our  present 
purpose. 

Question  (9)  meant  to  recognize  two   factors  in  training 


65]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  65 

teachers  —  practice-work  and  criticism,  and  observation  of 
model  work  and  criticism.  The  aim  was  to  find  where  the 
emphasis — the  greater  amount  of  time  and  energy — should  be 
placed  in  a  wise  system  of  training.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  large 
majority  of  those  who  answered  this  question  prefer  to  place 
the  emphasis  upon  practice  work  and  criticism.  This  is  true 
of  the  model  and  critic  teachers.  Of  the  16  heads  of  depart- 
ments, 9  are  more  favorable  to  placing  the  emphasis  on  prac- 
tice work  and  criticism,  and  8  favor  the  observation  and  criti- 
cism. It  would  seem  the  first  method  has  the  weight  of 
evidence  in  its  favor.  This  is  in  keeping  with  the  other  data 
given  in  the  questionnaire.  At  most,  these  data  represent  but 
the  minimum  of  imitation,  and  their  value  consists  largely  in 
this  fact.  There  are  at  least  two  valid  reasons  for  saying  that 
not  more  than  the  minimum  value  is  given.  First,  teachers 
cannot  report  their  unconscious  imitation,  and  it  must  be  evi- 
dent that  this  factor  is  large.  Secondly,  an  imitator  is  in  such 
disrepute  that  no  teacher  would  be  disposed  to  give  more  than 
his  minimum  imitation,  that  is,  the  part  of  which  he  is  pretty 
fully  aware.  As  it  will  later  appear,  I  wish  to  question  whether 
the  first  method — that  of  practice  teaching  followed  by  criti- 
cism— should  receive  the  more  emphasis,  whether  it  is  more 
expedient  than  the  second  in  the  training  of  teachers. 

We  may  now  return  to  the  statement  made  in  the  first  part 
of  this  section,  that  there  is  probably  much  loss  of  time  and 
energy  in  the  training  of  teachers.  There  is  sufficient  evi- 
dence in  these  two  last  questionnaires  to  render  this  more  than 
probable.  We  found  that  about  f  of  the  school  life  of  those 
who  are  preparing  to  teach  is  spent  under  the  tuition  of  indif- 
ferent and  poor  teachers.  If  we  put  the  average  school  life  of 
those  preparing  to  teach  at  12  years,  which  is  a  low  estimate, 
approximately  five  years  of  this  time  is  spent  under  very  un- 
favorable conditions  to  say  the  least.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, the  waste  of  time  and  energy  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  is  great.  This  is  the  only  waste  that  is  usually 


66  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  [66 

recognized.  Yet,  I  do  not  believe  it  is  the  largest  item  in  the 
loss  column  for  even  the  purely  academic  student.  l  In  the  re- 
plies of  55  college  presidents  and  representative  men  to  the 
question  :  What  is  the  best  thing  college  does  for  a  man  ?  in- 
fluence of  personality  everywhere  dominates.  How  does  per- 
sonality count  for  so  much?  Why  does  it  count  for  so  much  ? 
The  mere  knowledge  of  the  personality  of  another  individual 
does  not  differ  from  any  other  knowledge ;  it  has  no  more 
value  for  the  student  than  other  knowledge.  Personality  is 
valuable  only  in  so  far  as  the  student  partakes  of,  becomes 
like,  that  personality.  But,  how  get  it,  catch  it,  come  by  it  ? 
There  is  but  one  way,  and  that  is  the  simple,  natural,  easy  way 
of  imitation.  The  student  imitates  the  interest,  zeal,  tempera- 
ment, methods  of  thought  and  work,  and  he  thus  gets  the  es- 
sentials of  that  personality.  Whatever  of  worth  there  may  be 
in  any  personality  may  be  acquired,  so  far  as  such  an  acquisi- 
tion may  be  made,  by  imitation  alone.  Then  for  the  future 
teacher,  -f  of  his  teachers  not  only  fail  to  furnish  this  desirable 
characteristic  but  they  do  furnish  what  is  not  desirable — a  bad 
model  that  will  also  be  imitated.  Since  the  pupil  under 
tuition  is  to  do  the  same  kind  of  work  that  he  now  sees  so 
badly  done,  the  amount  of  waste  is  multiplied  many  times. 
Progress  is  not  only  retarded,  but  these  very  things  will  have 
to  be  unlearned.  To  unlearn  a  thing  is  even  slower  and  more 
difficult  than  to  learn  that  thing  aright.  Some  of  those  who 
filled  out  blanks  giving  data  on  this  subject  made  at  least  two 
strong  points  that  are  applicable  here.  On  the  one  hand,  it 
was  pointed  out  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  convince  a  person 
who  has  absorbed  bad  models  that  the  way  he  learned  is  not 
the  right  way,  than  it  is  to  teach  him  the  right  way.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  was  pointed  out  that  many  persons,  after  they 
are  convinced  of  error  and  learn  better  methods  of  teaching, 
soon  relapse  into  the  old  unpedagogical  way  of  doing  things. 

1  Phillips,  in  Pedagogical  Seminary  6,  242. 


67]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  fy 

Training-teachers  say  that  many  of  their  pupils  who  come 
from  poor  schools  will  soon  relapse  from  what  they  learned  in 
training  and  return  to  their  old  idols,  I  have  seen  some  ot 
the  difficulties  of  "  convincing  and  unlearning,"  and  I  have 
known  normal  students  to  "  relapse "  when  they  leave  the 
normal  school  to  teach. 

The  occasion  for  all  this  waste  is  the  absorbing  of  bad 
models  while  pupils,  from  which  the  future  teachers  are  not 
able  to  free  themselves.  There  is  still  another  source  of  waste 
in  the  training  of  teachers,  or  at  least  I  am  fully  persuaded  ot 
such  fact.  This  was  referred  to  in  discussing  question  (9)  in 
form  IV.  The  tendency  is  now  too  prevalent  to  try  to  furnish 
too  much  by  means  of  the  training  school,  and  to  assign  too 
little  value  to  the  imitation  and  criticism  of  good  models  seen. 
Training  work  may  do  one  of  two  things.  First,  teachers 
may  be  so  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  training  school  that  the 
use  of  good  methods  in  teaching  has  become  a  habit.  Such 
drilling  -is  unwise  and  a  waste  of  time  and  energy.  It  is  un- 
wise, because  those  who  will  become  efficient  teachers  do  not 
need  so  long  training.  There  is  a  more  expedient  course  to 
pursue,  as  we  shall  presently  try  to  show.  For  those  who 
will  acquire  and  practice  what  the  training  school  furnishes, 
only  when  such  training  has  become  habitual,  it  is  also  a 
waste  in  education.  Such  teachers  must  always  be  mechan- 
ical plodders.  Their  work  in  the  school-room  will  never  be 
commensurate  with  the  cost  of  their  training.  Whatever  of 
efficiency  there  is  in  such  teachers  may  be  secured  more 
economically. 

The  second  thing  that  training  may  do  for  teachers  is  to 
enable  them  to  see  and  appreciate  the  fundamental  problems 
in  teaching.  This  is  as  much  as  any  training-school  can 
afford  to  do.  To  attempt  more  than  this  is  a  waste  to  all 
concerned.  It  is  a  loss  to  those  up6n  whom  the  practice  is 
made,  because  we  have  already  seen  that  the  best  thing  a 
college  can  furnish — and  the  same  thing  is  true  of  any  other 


68  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION 

school — is  the  personality  of  the  teacher.  Pupil  teachers  can 
not  exert  the  influence  of  a  wholesome  personality  even  when 
they  possess  it.  The  conditions  cannot  be  made  sufficiently 
natural.  There  is  too  much  restraint.  Personality  must  have 
perfect  freedom  if  it  is  to  come  out  as  a  good  model  for  those 
who  are  taught. 

The  questions  :  "  What  is  the  remedy  ?  How  may  some  of 
this  waste  be  obviated  ? "  may  now  be  answered.  Better 
teachers  would  solve  the  whole  problem.  If  pupils  never  saw 
any  but  good  teaching,  few,  excepting  the  very  indolent  and 
stupid,  would  fall  into  bad  methods.  While  it  is  not  possible 
to  have  all  good  teachers,  much  could  be  gained  if  the  evil 
effect  of  bad  models  was  more  vigorously  insisted  upon,  if 
those  who  are  thinking  of  becoming  teachers  were  fully 
awakened  to  this  fact.  At  least,  much  could  be  done  in  nor- 
mal schools.  Although  the  normal  schools  seem  to  rank  first 
in  good  models,  there  is  still  too  large  a  number  of  indifferent 
and  poor  teachers  in  these  schools.  Another  more  practical 
remedy  for  the  long  apprenticeship  in  training-schools  is  more 
observation  of  good  model  work,  under  wise  supervision  and 
followed  by  expert  criticism  and  discussion.  This  is  the  more 
economical  way  of  training  teachers.  One  model  class  will 
serve  a  whole  class  of  pupil  teachers  for  a  given  lesson.  All 
that  is  needed  in  the  way  of  pupil  teaching  is  enough  to  test 
their  observation  and  criticism,  to  bring  out  the  practical  diffi- 
culties and  suggest  the  remedies.  The  chief  value  of  pupil 
teaching  is  not  to  give  the  pupil  an  opportunity  to  flounder 
about  until  he  hits  upon  a  good  method,  and  yet  this  is  the 
logical  conclusion  of  long  training-school  courses.  The  real 
value  of  pupil  teaching  is  to  bring  out  clearly  and  enforce 
deeply  what  should  be  imitated — the  good  models.  It  is  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  recognize  and  choose  the  good  models. 
All  this  may  be  secured  with  less  training  work,  if  we  once 
come  to  recognize  the  value  and  significance  of  imitation,  and 
if  we  wisely  employ  observation  of  good  model-school  work 


69]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  6g 

and  follow  this  observation  with  skillfully  conducted  criticism 
and  discussion. 

There  is  still  another  substitute  for  much  training-school 
work.  This  consists  in  good  supervision  of  teachers  after  they 
have  entered  upon  their  work  as  teachers.  The  need  of  su- 
pervision is  generally  recognized,  but  the  difference  between 
good  supervision  and  poor  supervision,  or  none  at  all,  is  sel- 
dom noted.  The  most  effective  and  economical  training  of 
teachers  possible  is  to  be  had  in  actual  school  work  under 
wise  and  efficient  supervision.  This  training  of  regular  teach- 
ers may  be  greatly  facilitated  if  boards  of  education  and  super- 
intendents would  have  those  teachers  most  in  need  of  training 
see  good  teaching  done.  This  observation  should  be  followed 
by  the  same  kind  of  criticism  as  suggested  above  in  the  obser- 
vation of  model-school  teaching.  If  superintendents  and  prin- 
cipals were  properly  qualified  for  their  work,  there  is  no  phase 
of  training-school  work  that  might  not  be  just  as  effectively 
done  in  any  school  whatsoever  as  in  a  training  school ;  and  it 
might  be  done  much  more  economically  if  the  full  influence 
and  value  of  imitation  were  recognized  and  utilized.  Those 
teachers  who  will  become  efficient  would  have  greater  freedom, 
and  so  become  more  efficient  with  less  expenditure  of  time 
and  energy ;  and  those  who  would  never  become  highly  effi- 
cient teachers  could  have  their  lull  ability  brought  out  by  the 
use  of  more  observation  and  criticism  and  less  practice-teach- 
ing ;  and  in  each  case,  good  supervision  would  take  up  and 
continue  the  work  of  the  training  school. 

The  waste  in  the  training  of  teachers  may  be  compared  with 
the  waste,  pretty  fully  recognized,  in  general  education.  The 
best  educational  thinkers  are  of  opinion  that  there  is  much 
waste  in  school  work,  because  what  is  taught  in  school  is  not 
well  articulated  with  actual  life  experience,  because  the  cen- 
tral purpose  and  the  aim  of  education  are  not  manifested  in  the 
whole  process.  The  loss  of  time  and  energy  in  the  training  of 
teachers  is  due  to  this  same  cause.  The  prospective  teacher 


70  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  [70 

is  brought  up  through  a  vicious  system  of  schools  and 
bad  models.  He  becomes  thoroughly  saturated  with  bad 
methods ;  then  he  is  sent  to  a  normal  school  where  there  are 
still  many  bad  models,  and  he  is  asked  to  put  away  the  bone 
and  sinew  of  much  of  his  former  training,  and  to  put  on  new 
muscle  and  fiber.  And,  this  new  body  of  thought  and  action 
must  be  built  up  out  of  nothing.  He  must  not  feed  on  and  imi- 
tate good  models,  but  he  must  be  eminently  original,  he  must 
work  out  his  own  individuality,  which  consists,  so  far  as  con- 
tent is  concerned,  in  bad  blood  absorbed  from  bad  models. 
When  he  goes  out  to  teach,  he  is  placed  under  superintend- 
ents and  principals  who  are  not  models ;  neither  can  they  set 
a  model,  nor  do  they  allow  their  teachers  sufficient  opportunity 
to  see  good  teaching  done.  In  this  way,  the  training  of  teach- 
ers is  not  correlated  with  all  that  contributes  to  make  good 
teachers,  chiefly  because  the  significance  of  imitation  is  not 
recognized  and  utilized. 

The  value  of  imitation  in  teaching  morality  has  already 
been  referred  to  in  discussing  the  answers  to  Questionnaires 
I  and  II.  Let  us  now  try  to  find  what  significance  imitation 
has  in  moral  education.  An  essential  aim  of  education  is  to 
develop  moral  beings,  to  develop  good  character.  There  are 
many  other  desirable  ends  to  be  attained  by  education,  but 
unless  these  are  accompanied  by  good  character  education 
is  incomplete.  Any  means  of  furthering  or  of  achieving  the 
purposes  of  education  must  lend  itself  to  the  inculcation  of 
morality,  if  such  means  is  to  receive  wide  application  and  gen- 
eral recognition  and  favor.  So,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  this 
test  to  imitation.  It  will  be  found  that  not  only  much  of  the 
superstructure  of  morality  but  also  much  of  the  cement  that 
holds  the  foundation  together  is  due  to  imitation.  Prof.  Royce 
says  l "  Our  social  morality  depends  in  a  large  measure  upon 
our  regard  for  the  will,  interests,  precepts,  and  welfare  of  our 

1  The  Century  Magazine,  26:    141. 


7 1  ]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  j  r 

fellows.  Now  this  regard  is  dependent  upon  our  power  by 
imitation  to  experience  and  to  comprehend  the  suggested  will, 
interest,  and  authority  about  us.  Imitation  is  thus  funda- 
mental in  the  development  of  conscience."  This  is  true  of 
the  individual  conscience  ;  the  regard  for  others  is  extended  by 
experience  and  becomes  the  cement  of  society. 

The  value  of  example  over  precept  is  well  recognized  in 
moral  training.  There  is  a  vitalizing  force  in  example,  not 
found  in  precept.  The  former  stays  with  one,  insinuates  itself 
in  consciousness  in  cases  of  emergency,  is  more  easily  used 
when  there  is  need.  Why  is  this  true  ?  One  reason  for  its 
staying  quality  is  the  concreteness  of  the  knowledge  thus  ac- 
quired. But  the  final  test  of  all  knowledge  is  in  its  applica- 
tion. Can  it  be  used  ?  Will  it  be  used  ?  It  is  in  the  facility 
with  which  example  may  be  used  that  its  superior  value  lies. 
This  tendency  and  facility  in  using  example  consists  in  the 
fact  that  it  may  be  imitated. 

Both  the  strength  and  weakness  of  example  in  moral  teaching 
consist  in  the  ease  with  which  example  is  controlled.  l  Preyer 
points  this  out  in  saying  "  Timid  and  affected  mothers  have 
timid  and  affected  children,  for  the  reason  that  their  own  be- 
havior, their  frequent  startings,  outcries,  flights,  are  imitated. 
In  like  manner,  courageous  mothers  have  courageous  children. 
True,  temperament  has  much  to  do  with  this  matter,  but  for 
teachers  imitation  is  of  more  value  since  it  maybe  controlled.'' 
Whether  \ve  are  timid  and  shrinking  or  cairn,  courageous,  and 
self-possessed,  depends  very  largely  on  the  example  set  by  our 
associates  and  teachers  for  us  to  imitate.  That  calm  demeanor 
may  be  imitated  is  well  known.  It  is  also  a  lamentable  fact 
that  Americans  do  not  give  sufficient  attention  to  this  method 
of  teaching  and  learning.  We  are  too  much  given  to  "jerk 
and  snap,"  to  talk  in  a  high  key  and  to  look  animated,  even 
excited.  2  Prof.  James  says  :  "  There  is  only  one  way  to  im- 

1  Infant  Mind,  p.  12. 

2  Talks  to  Teachers,  p.  217. 


72  IMITA  TION  IN  EDUCA TION  [73 

prove  ourselves,  and  that  is  by  some  of  us  setting  an  example 
which  the  others  may  pick  up  and  imitate  till  the  new  fashion 
spreads  from  east  to  west.  If  you  should  individually  achieve 
calmness  and  harmony  in  your  own  person,  you  may  depend 
upon  it  that  a  wave  of  imitation  will  spread  from  you,  as  surely 
as  the  circles  spread  outward  when  a  stone  is  dropped  into  a 
lake.  Become  the  imitable  thing  and  you  may  then  discharge 
your  minds  of  all  responsibility  for  the  imitation." 

By  reference  to  Questionnaire  III,  question  (9),  it  may  be 
seen  how  large  a  factor  imitation  of  "  calm  demeanor  "  may 
be.  What  may  be  done  by  imitation  of  right  models  is  illus- 
trated by  the  experience  of  a  teacher  given  in  this  question- 
naire. This  is  the  experience  :  "  I  imitated  a  principal  whom 
I  taught  under.  I  had  an  intense  admiration  for  her  self- 
possession,  coolness  and  tact.  I  find  by  forcing  myself  to  be 
like  her  I  have  ceased  to  be  nervous,  to  talk  in  a  high  key, 
or  to  antagonize  strange  or  new  pupils."  So  much  has  been 
said  of  example  and  its  possible  influence  to  show  how  im- 
itation becomes  an  important  element  in  determining  conduct. 
It  should  be  observed  that  the  value  of  imitation  in  molding 
general  behavior  measures  its  value  as  a  method  for  teaching 
morality. 

In  speaking  of  social  influences1  David  Kay  says  they  "may 
be  divided  into  two  kinds,  the  direct  and  the  indirect.  The 
"child  instinctively  imitates  the  manner  of  the  teacher,  and 
copies  the  example  of  the  parent.  The  influences  we  uncon- 
sciously exert  go  streaming  from  us  in  all  directions,  though 
in  channels  we  do  not  see,  poisoning  or  healing  around  the 
roots  of  society  and  among  the  hidden  wells  of  character." 
The  best  thing  written  upon  the  indirect  teaching  by  the 
imitation  of  example,  and  something  every  teacher  should 
read,  is  an  article  by  Huntington2  "  Unconscious  Tuition."  He 

1  Education  and  Educators,  p.  383. 
*  School  Room  Classics,!:  5-45. 


73]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  73 

says  "  unconscious  tuition  is  that  part  of  a  teacher's  work 
which  he  does  when  he  seems  not  to  be  doing  anything  at  his 
work  at  all."  He  sets  forth  his  educational  creed  on  uncon- 
scious tuition,  or  the  unconscious  teaching  that  goes  to  build 
up  good  character,  in  three  propositions :  (i)  "  That  there  is 
an  educating  power  issuing  from  the  teacher,  not  by  voice  or 
by  immediate  design,  but  silent,  involuntary,  as  indispensable 
to  his  true  work  as  any  element  in  it ;  (2)  That  this  uncon- 
scious tuition  is  yet  no  product  of  caprice  or  of  accident,  but 
takes  its  quality  from  the  undermost  substance  of  the  teacher's 
character;  (3)  That  as  it  is  an  emanation  flowing  from  the 
very  spirit  of  his  own  life,  so  it  is  also  an  influence  acting  in- 
sensibly to  form  the  life  of  the  scholar."  The  implication 
here  is  that  the  teacher  is  an  example,  a  model,  and  that  the 
pupil  will  imitate  him  not  only  consciously,  but  to  an  even 
greater  degree  unconsciously. 

Finally,  if  we  go  to  the  Great  Teacher  of  morality  and  in- 
quire what  was  his  method  for  teacher  and  learner,  and  seek 
to  find  why  the  world  has  been  charmed  for  all  these  cen- 
turies, we  shall  find  the  method  was  example  in  teacher  and 
imitation  in  followers.  Aside  from  the  soundness  and  the 
fascination  of  his  doctrine,  much  of  the  force  of  his  teaching 
was  due  to  his  method.  His  more  direct  teaching  was  almost 
wholly  by  example  in  the  form  of  parable.  His  power  in  the 
world  consists  largely  in  the  example  of  his  own  life  set  for 
our  pattern.  His  method  for  those  who  would  learn  of  him 
may  be  summed  up  in  his  command,  "  Follow  Me."  It  was 
no  mere  play  of  the  imagination  that  caused  l  Browning  to  put 
these  words  in  the  mouth  of  Tiburzio,  the  Pisan  commander  : 

"  A  people  is  but  the  attempt  of  many 
To  rise  to  the  completer  life  in  one; 
And  those  who  live  as  models  for  the  mass 
Are  singly  of  more  value  than  they  all. 
.  .  .  Keep  but  God's  model  safe,  new  men  will  rise 
To  take  its  mould."  .  .  . 

1  Luria — a  Tragedy. 


74  1MITA  TION  JN  ED  UCA  TION  [74 

In  discussing  the  significance  of  imitation  in  education,  we 
have  seen  some  of  the  work  that  has  been  done  to  bring  out 
this  significance,  and  what  some  prominent  educators  have 
thought  of  the  value  of  imitation.  We  have  also  seen  some- 
thing of  the  influence  and  significance  of  imitation  among  stu- 
dents in  school,  in  the  training  of  teachers,  and  in  moral  teach- 
ing. We  shall  now  try  to  find  what  value  imitation  may  have 
in  studying  language  and  composition,  in  getting  and  using 
methods  for  doing  things,  in  the  general  process  of  learning — 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge — and  finally  point  out  some  of  the 
dangers  and  limitations  of  imitation  in  education.  We  shall 
first  consider  the  importance  of  imitation  in  the  study  of  lan- 
guage and  composition. 

The  influence  of  imitation  as  a  factor  in  developing  mind 
may  be  seen  in  the  development  of  language.  1  Language  is 
a  product  of  social  imitation.  When  we  remember  that  most 
of  our  rational  thinking  is  done  in  language,  we  may  more 
clearly  see  how  imitation  in  the  development  of  language  is  at 
the  same  time  giving  not  only  the  form,  but  a  model  of  the 
method  and  spirit  of  rational  thinking.  Without  imitativeness 
there  is  no  language  and  no  higher  development  of  thought  in 
any  of  us.  Only  the  imitative  animal  can  become  rational.  2  It 
may  be  said  that  language  is  at  first  instinctive  in  both  the 
lower  animals  and  in  man.  This  instinctive  phase  consists 
simply  in  making  sounds.  These  sounds  are  changed  into 
language  by  imitation.  The  sound  or  word  is  associated  with 
certain  objects,  ideas  or  images. 

The  progress  in  language  is  largely  a  matter  of  defining  its 
early  vagueness,  by  extending,  defining,  and  rendering  it  more 
definite  and  clear.  It  is  a  notorious  fact,  known  to  all  teach- 
ers, that  progress  is  rapid,  and  results  good  in  language  just  in 
proportion  as  the  models  the  child  has  to  imitate  are  good.  It 

1  The  Century  Magazine,  26,  141. 

2  Tracy,  Psychology  of  Childhood,  p.  156. 


75] 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION 


is  because  imitation  plays  so  large  a  part  in  language  that  the 
chief  difficulty  exists  in  teaching  composition  and  literature. 
While  these  subjects  are  among  the  most  valuable  in  any 
course  of  study,  they  are  also  among  the  most  difficult  to  teach. 
The  reason  for  this  great  difficulty  is  that  in  most  subjects  the 
teacher  has  a  clear  field  to  begin  with.  The  pupil  has  little  or 
nothing  to  unlearn.  Still  more  important,  the  teacher's  work  as 
a  teacher  is  not  counteracted  at  every  point  by  bad  models 
imitated.  In  language,  the  pupil,  on  entering  school,  must 
unlearn  much.  This  is  always  a  slow  and  difficult  process. 
Besides,  the  teacher's  efforts  to  advance  the  pupil  are  hindered 
at  every  step  by  bad  models  in  speech  and  in  literature.  A 
distinguished  teacher  of  language  of  this  city  recently  said  in 
my  hearing  that  his  own  children  made  progress  in  language  or 
failed  to  do  so  just  in  proportion  to  the  time  they  were  associ- 
ated in  play,  etc.,  with  those  who  used  good  or  bad  language. 
What  does  this  mean?  It  means,  as  was  said  above,  that  the 
models  set  for  us  determine  our  language  and  that  imitation  is 
the  strongest  factor.  The  same  thought  is  expressed  when  ed- 
ucators say  language  in  our  public  schools  must  not  be  taught 
by  special  teachers.  Every  teacher  must  teach  language.  The 
thought  is  that  the  child  must  have  none  but  good  models, 
must  live  in  an  atmosphere  of  good  models,  must  breathe  in 
and  absorb  and  imitate  these  models. 

And  here  is  found  the  essential  thing  in  imitation.  The 
model  must  not  be  something  tacked  on  to  the  outside.  It 
must  be  absorbed,  digested,  assimilated  to  be  worked  out  and 
expressed  in  intelligent  imitation.  The  matter  of  substance, 
some  real  stuff  to  think,  speak,  and  write  about,  is  not  over- 
/,/looked.  The  ideas,  the  knowledge,  must  always  precede  the 
expression  of  such  ideas  or  knowledge.  Yet,  it  is  one  thing 
to  have  something  to  say  and  it  is  quite  another  thing  to  be 
able  to  say  that  something.  It  is  with  the  expression  that  we 
are  now  concerned,  and  it  is  here  that  imitation  plays  its  im- 
portant part  in  language.  Imitation  in  language  is  at  first 


76  IMITA TION  IN  EDUCA  T1ON  [76 

conscious.  It  requires  much  effort  and  much  adjustment. 
Even  in  the  pronunciation  of  words,  much  more  in  finding 
their  exact  meaning  and  definite  use,  there  is  much  adjustment 
and  adaptation  by  trial  and  error.  The  child  often  exhibits 
inventive  powers  in  the  modification  of  words  to  adapt  the 
sound  to  1  what  it  can  pronounce.  This  is  still  more  notice- 
able in  the  use  of  words  when  it  extends  their  application  to 
unnamed  objects,  actions,  and  qualities.  This  conscious  imi- 
tation is  notable  in  adults  in  learning  to  write  or  to  compose. 
Every  writer,  small  or  great,  builds  up  his  style  from  the  small 
or  great  that  preceded  him. 

The  value  of  imitation  in  teaching  composition  is  too  often 
overlooked.  This  is  especially  true  of  young  teachers  and 
still  more  strikingly  manifested  in  those  teachers  who  have  a 
ready  intuition  and  who  have  easily  developed  good  literary 
tastes.  This  holds  not  only  for  teachers  of  rhetoric  and  com- 
position, but  it  may  be  observed  in  most  teachers  who  readily 
acquired  their  academic  training.  Such  persons  usually  ac- 
quired their  training  with  greater  facility  because  their  brains 
were  more  plastic,  more  sensitive  to  impressions.  By  virtue 
of  their  plasticity  of  brain,  they  got  their  models  more  easily, 
imitated  them  less  consciously.  They  more  fully  absorbed 
their  models  and  consequently  were  not  aware  of  imitating. 
They  did  not  imitate  less  but  more.  It  was,  however,  a  higher 
order  of  imitation.  So  it  happens  that  such  teachers  do  some 
very  strange  things  and  teach  some  very  paradoxical  doctrine. 
They  say — do  not  imitate,  be  original.  But  they  can  never 
tell  you  how  to  be  original.  When  they  are  closely  pressed 
by  pupils  for  an  answer  to  this  very  puzzling  thing,  they  will 
say  :  "  Oh,  you  must  just  feel  it,  catch  it,"  and  such  vague 
sayings.  When  translated  into  descriptive  terms,  what  does 
this  "  feeling  it  "  and  "  catching  it "  mean  ?  Neither  more  nor 
less  than  unconscious  imitation.  These  teachers  would  have 

1  Tracy,  Psychology  of  Childhood,  p.  138. 


77]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  77 

their  pupils  absorb  their  models,  saturate  themselves,  as  it 
were,  with  the  best  models.  Later  they  can  imitate  these 
models  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  not  appear  as  imitation. 
Whatever  of  individuality,  of  personality,  the  pupil  may 
possess  will  color,  reclothe,  and  tend  to  remove  the  too 
familiar  garb  of  the  model.  This,  however,  as  we  pointed  out 
in  discussing  the  nature  of  imitation,  is  the  essential  character- 
istic of  all  the  higher  forms  of  imitation. 

This  same  thought  of  unconscious  imitation  must  have  been 
in  the  mind  of  Dr.  Johnson  l  when  he  said  :  "  Whoever  wishes 
to  attain  an  English  style,  familiar  but  not  coarse,  and  elegant 
but  not  ostentatious,  must  give  his  days  and  nights  to  the  vol- 
umes of  Addison."  In  this  sentence  imitation  is  quite  as  im- 
plicit as  it  is  made  explicit  by  Prof.  Hinsdale.2  He  says, 
"  the  key  words  to  the  language-arts  are  imitation  and  prac- 
tice, models  and  correction.  The  teacher's  practical  problem 
is  to  correlate  the  two  mam  ideas  that  these  words  express." 
These  two  ideas  are  models  and  imitation,  practice  and  correc- 
tion. "Both  elements  are  called  for ;  but  models  and  imita- 
tion come  first,  and  they  are  of  the  greater  value."  Walter 
Raleigh3  says  "  Imitation  of  the  masters,  or  some  one  chosen 
master,  and  the  constant  purging  of  language  by  a  severe 
critcism,  have  their  uses  not  to  be  belittled."  These  two 
passages  quoted  agree  in  assigning  a  prominent  place  in 
composition  to  imitation.  In  what  follows,  we  shall  see 
that  literary  men  of  note  did  learn  to  write  by  imitating  the 
masters. 

While  Browning  never  set  himself  to  work  to  develop  a  lit- 
erary style  of  his  own  by  imitating  classic  models,  his  earliest 
poem  "  Pauline"  is  thoroughly  saturated  with  Shelley.  Pope 


1  Lives  of  the  Poets,  p.  248. 

1  Teaching  the  Language  Arts,  p.  198. 

1  Style,  p.  125. 


7 8  IMITA  TION  IN  EDLCA TION  [78 

built  up  his  style  very  largely  by  modifying  Dryden.  He 
also  imitated  Chaucer  and  others.  Johnson1  says  "  Pope  first 
learned  to  write  by  imitating  printed  books."  Few  literary 
men  exhibit  more  originality  than  does  Tennyson ;  yet,  we 
need  no  biography  to  see  how  he  developed  his  style.  "  The 
Poems  by  Two  Brothers"  are  Byronic ;  his  prize  poem  "  Tim- 
buctoo"is  distinctively  Miltonic.  Later  he  imitated  Keats 
and  others.  However,  his  later  poems  are  his  own.  Out  of 
all  this  imitation  came  the  style  Tennysonian.  The  very  ad- 
mirable style  of  Defoe2  in  "  Robinson  Crusoe"  is  due  to  his 
successful  imitation  of  Bunyan.  It  is  said  Bunyan  was  the 
first  writer  to  make  his  style  engaging  to  the  reader  by  a 
happy  mixture  of  narration  and  dialogue.  Defoe  also  imitated 
the  same  method  in  his  "  Moll  Flanders."  Shelley3  imitated 
Leigh  Hunt  in  an  "  attempt  to  add  a  familiar  levity  of  style  to 
variety  of  movement  in  his  metre." 

To  see  more  clearly  how  a  literary  style  may  be  built  up 
by  imitating  the  masters,  let  us  examine  the  method  of  a  lew 
men.  We  shall  take  Keats,  Franklin  and  R.  L.  Stevenson. 
These  are  chosen  not  because  they  are  the  worst  offenders, 
but  because  they  are  regarded  as  having  attained  a  good  lit- 
erary styl«  of  their  own,  and  because  we  know  most  about 
their  method.  Keats'  first  attempt  to  write  anything  substan- 
tial in  poetry  was  his  "  In  Imitation  of  Spencer.4  He  got  his 
model  from  the  "  Faerie  Queene."  Spencer's  fairyland  en- 
chanted him,  caused  him  to  breathe  in  anew  world,  to  become 
another  being.  He  attempted  to  imitate  it  and  succeeded. 
"  At  first  he  seems  to  have  worked  steadily  enough  along 
lines  which  others  had  marked  out  for  him."  It  is  clear  his 

1  Lives  cf  the  Poets,  p.  374. 

2  Autobiography  of  Franklin  (Cassell's  Library),  p.  28. 
8  Morley's  Keats  {English  Men  of  Letters'},  p.  32. 

4  Morley's  Keats  {English  Men  of  Letter s},  p.  13. 


79]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  79 

earliest  verses  were  modeled  more  on  modern  writers.  In  his 
ode  "  To  Apollo"  he  seems  to  imitate  Gray.  The  rhythmical 
form  of  "  Endymion  "  is  due  to  the  example  set  by  Hunt. 
"  The  Rimini"  is  the  model.  Keats  used  the  "  Faerie  Queene" 
and  "  Rimini"  conjointly  as  models  ;  he  tried  to  embody  the 
spirit  of  the  former  in  the  metre  of  the  latter.  By  the  time 
Keats  was  twenty  four,  or  a  little  later,  he  had  thrown  off  most 
of  the  eighteenth  century  stiffness  which  clung  to  his  earlier 
efforts.  Yet  he  did  not  still  adopt  a  vocabulary  of  his  own,  full 
of  license.  This  he  caught  later  from  the  Elizabethans  and 
from  Milton. 

A  more  instructive  account  is  given  by  Franklin  in  his 
Autobiography^  His  first  reading  consisted  largely  in  polemic 
literature.  This  literature  was  chiefly  of  the  religious  kind  of 
which  his  father's  library  consisted.  This  reading  gave  him  a 
bias  for  disputation,  somewhat  dogmatic.  The  early  tendency 
to  dogmatism  is  discovered  and  overcome  by  imitation,  as  we 
shall  see.  In  these  discussions,  it  was  pointed  out  to  him  that 
he  was  lacking  "  in  elegance  of  expression,  in  method,  and  in 
perspicuity."  About  this  time  he  met  with  a  volume  of  the 
Spectator.  He  says,  "  I  read  it  over  and  over  and  was  much 
delighted  with  it.  I  thought  the  writing  was  excellent,  and 
wished,  if  possible,  to  imitate  it.  With  that  view  I  took  some 
of  the  papers,  and  making  short  hints  of  the  sentiments  in 
each  sentence,  laid  them  by  a  few  days,  and  then,  without 
looking  at  the  work,  tried  to  complete  the  papers  again,  by 
expressing  each  hinted  sentiment  at  length,  and  as  fully  as  it 
had  been  expressed  before,  in  any  suitable  words  that  should 
occur  to  me.  Then  I  compared  my  Spectator  with  the  orig- 
inal, discovered  some  of  my  faults,  and  corrected  them." 
Here  he  discovered  the  need  of  a  stock  of  words  and  a  readi- 
ness to  recollect  and  use  them.  To  overcome  this  he  "  took 
some  of  the  tales  in  the  Spectator  and  turned  them  into  verse  ; 

1  CasselPs  Library  Edition,  p.  16-21. 


80  IM1TA  T10N  IN  ED UCA  T2ON  [go 

and  after  a  time,  when  I  had  pretty  well  forgotten  the  prose, 
turned  them  back  again."  He  sometimes  jumbled  his  collec- 
tion of  hints  into  confusion,  and  then,  after  a  time,  would  en- 
deavor to  reduce  them  to  the  best  order  before  he  began  to 
form  the  full  sentences  and  complete  the  subject.  "  This  was 
to  teach  me  method  in  the  arrangement  of  the  thoughts."  He 
then  compared  his  own  arrangement  with  the  original  and 
corrected  his  faults.  How  this  brought  out  his  own  power 
of  expression  is  seen  in  this  observation.  "But  I  sometimes 
had  the  pleasure  to  fancy  that,  in  certain  particulars  of  small 
consequence,  I  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  improve  the 
method  or  the  language."  How  he  overcame  his  early  ac- 
quired dogmatism  and  developed  the  habit  of  expressing  him- 
self "  in  terms  of  modest  diffidence  "  is  seen  in  his  imitation 
of  Socrates.  "  While  I  was  intent  on  improving  my  language," 
he  says,  "  I  met  with  an  English  grammar  having  a  sketch  on 
the  Arts  of  Rhetoric  and  Logic  in  the  Socratic  method ;  later 
I  procured  Xenophon's  Memorable  Things  of  Socrates^  con- 
taining many  examples  of  the  same  method.  I  was  charmed 
with  it,  adopted  it,  dropped  my  abrupt  contradictions  and 
positive  argumentation,  and  put  on  the  humble  inquirer."  He 
further  says,  "  I  continued  this  method  some  few  years,  but 
gradually  left  it,  retaining  only  the  habit  of  expressing  myself 
in  terms  of  modest  diffidence.  This  habit  has  been  of  great 
advantage  to  me."  Thus  we  see  Franklin  acquired  not  only 
an  elegance  of  style,  but  also  a  method  of  thought  by  means 
of  imitation.  His  imitation  was  of  a  high  order  and  developed 
in  him  originality. 

The  case  of  Stevenson's  learning  to  write  is  even  more 
pertinent  than  that  of  Franklin's.  There  are  two  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  style  of  Stevenson.  The  value  of  imitation 
is  brought  out  by  contrasting  these  two  stages  or  methods. 
As  will  be  noted  later,  in  the  first  method,  he  attempts  to  store 
his  mind  with  matter  about  which  to  write.  Then  he  tries  to 
give  expression  to  these  ideas  and  thoughts  without  having  in 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  $l 

mind  any  definite  model  to  give  his  expression  form.  In  the 
second  method,  to  which  attention  is  especially  invited,  he  did 
have  models  of  style  before  him  and  consciously  tried  to  imi- 
tate them.  To  bring  out  the  contrast  of  these  two  methods 
and  to  emphasize  the  significance  of  imitation,  we  can  not  do 
better  than  to  give  his  own  account  and  his  observations  upon 
imitation  in  learning  to  write. 

He  says:1  "I  was  always  busy  on  my  own  private  end, 
which  was  to  learn  to  write.  I  always  kept  two  books  in  my 
pockets,  one  to  read  and  one  to  write  in.  As  I  walked,  my 
mind  was  busy  fitting  what  I  saw  with  appropriate  words; 
when  I  sat  by  the  roadside,  I  would  either  read,  or  a  pencil 
and  a  penny  version-book  would  be  in  my  hand  to  note  down 
the  features  of  the  scene  or  commemorate  some  halting  stanzas. 
Thus  I  lived  with  words.  It  was  not  so  much  that  I  wished 
to  be  an  author  as  that  I  wished  to  learn  to  write.  Descrip- 
tion was  the  principal  field  of  my  exercise,  but  I  worked  in 
other  ways  also ;  often  accompanied  my  walks  with  dramatic 
dialogues  and  in  writing  down  conversations  from  memory 
and  in  keeping  diaries." 

This,  as  indicated  above,  was  his  first  plan.  It  is  also  the 
method  of  teachers  of  composition,  for  teachers  are  usually  shy 
of  imitation.  Of  this  first  method  he  says :  "  This  was  all  very 
excellent.  And  yet  this  was  not  the  most  efficient  part  of  my 
training.  Good  though  it  was,  it  only  taught  me  the  lower 
and  less  intellectual  elements  of  the  art,  the  choice  of  the 
essential  note  and  right  word.  And  regarded  as  training,  it 
had  one  grave  defect,  for  it  set  me  no  standard  of  achieve- 
ment." Let  it  be  observed  here  that  he  always  kept  two 
books  in  his  pockets  ;  that  he  was  a  very  zealous  reader.  It 
must  certainly  be  admitted  that  he  had  some  model  more  or 
less  consciously  in  mind.  The  thing  of  importance  is,  this 
was  not  sufficient  in  itself.  The  model  must  be  more  clearly 

1  Stevenson's  Memories  and  Portraits,  pp.  55-64. 


8 2  1MITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [3  2 

defined,  and  in  order  to  bring  out  his  undeveloped  literary 
powers  it  is  necessary  to  make  an  effort  to  imitate  the  model. 

He  continues  by  saying :  "  There  was,  perhaps,  more  profit, 
as  there  was  certainly  more  effort,  in  my  secret  labors  at 
home.  Whenever  I  read  a  book  or  a  passage  that  particularly 
pleased  me,  I  must  sit  down  at  once  and  set  myself  to  imitate 
that  quality  of  propriety  or  conspicuous  force  or  happy  dis- 
tinction in  style.  I  was  unsuccessful  and  I  knew  it,  but  I  got 
some  practice  in  these  vain  bouts  in  rhythm,  in  harmony,  in 
construction,  and  in  coordination  of  parts.  I  have  thus  played 
the  sedulous  ape  to  Hazlitt,  to  Lamb,  to  Wordsworth,  to 
Browne,  to  DeFoe,  to  Hawthorne,  to  Montaigne,  to  Baude- 
laire, and  to  Obermann.  "  Robin  Hood,"  a  tale  in  verse,  took 
an  eclectic  middle  course  among  the  fields  of  Keats,  Chaucer, 
and  Morris.  "  He  says  he  wrote  one  early  production  first  in 
the  style  of  Hazlitt,  then  after  Ruskin,  and  finally  in  imitation 
of  Browne."  This  was  the  method  of  Stevenson  in  learning 
to  write.  How  successful  the  plan  was,  his  writings  are  suffi- 
cient testimony. 

Let  us  now  note  the  estimate  Stevenson  made  of  imitation 
in  learning  to  write.  In  speaking  of  the  method  by  imitation, 
he  says  "  That,  like  it  or  not,  is  the  way  to  learn  to  write.  It 
was  so  Keats  learned,  and  there  never  was  a  finer  temperament 
for  literature  than  Keats's;  it  is  so,  if  we  could  trace  it  out, 
that  all  men  have  learned.  Perhaps  I  hear  some  one  cry  out : 
"  But  that  is  not  the  way  to  be  original !"  It  is  not ;  nor  is  there 
any  way  but  to  be  born  so.  Nor  yet,  if  you  are  born  original, 
is  there  anything  in  this  training  that  shall  clip  the  wings 
of  your  originality  ?  There  can  be  no  one  more  original  than 
Montaigne,  neither  could  any  be  more  unlike  Cicero ;  yet  no 
craftsman  can  fail  to  see  how  much  the  one  in  his  time  tried 
to  imitate  the  other.  Burns  is  the  very  type  of  a  prime  force 
in  letters ;  he  was  of  all  men  the  most  imitative.  Shakespeare 
himself,  the  imperial,  proceeds  directly  from  a  school.  Nor  is 
there  anything  here  that  should  astonish  the  considerate. 


83]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  g^ 

Before  he  can  tell  what  cadences  he  truly  prefers,  the  student 
should  have  tried  all  that  are  possible ;  before  he  can  choose 
and  preserve  a  fitting  key  of  words,  he  should  long  have  prac- 
ticed the  literary  scales,"  and,  he  adds,  "  it  is  the  great  point 
of  these  imitations  that  there  still  shines  beyond  the  student's 
reach  his  inimitable  model." 

I  have  dwelt  at  this  length  on  language  and  composition 
not  only  because  of  their  large  value  in  education,  but  also 
because  of  their  peculiar  fitness  to  illustrate  the  educational 
significance  of  imitation.  The  nature  of  intelligent  imitation, 
its  selective  nature  in  choice  models,  the  progressive  nature 
of  the  model  ever  becoming  more  refined,  more  ideal,  could 
not  easily  be  made  more  apparent.  That  so  many  literary 
men  of  originality  and  genius  have  made  so  large  use  of  imi- 
tation in  the  development  of  their  style  and  method  of  thought, 
seems  to  lend  much  evidence  in  favor  of  a  more  liberal  use 
of  imitation  and  its  methods  in  other  lines  of  education.  The 
claim  has  already  been  made  in  this  paper,  and  I  wish  to 
emphasize  it  here  again,  that  while  imitation  in  itself  is  not 
originality,  it  is  the  rational  method  of  developing  originality 
in  the  individual.  It  will  not  bring  out  more  than  there  is  in 
him ;  but  it  will  set  a  bait  in  the  shape  of  an  inviting  model 
that  will  lure  him  on  to  surpass  himself  and  still  entice  him  on 
to  repeat  the  wholesome  process  of  outstripping  himself. 

We  shall  next  inquire  into  the  value  of  method,  and  try  to 
find  what  significance  imitation  has  in  the  acquisition  and 
application  of  method  and  in  the  process  of  learning.  By 
method,  I  mean  the  way  of  doing  things,  from  learning  how 
to  observe,  how  to  put  a  question  to  nature  or  to  a  child  or  an 
adult,  how  to  reach  a  sound  conclusion,  up  to  how  to  behave, 
how  to  act  in  the  presence  of  new  environment.  In  this  sense, 
the  acquisition  of  method  is  the  most  valuable  thing  that  edu- 
cation can  furnish  the  individual  or  the  race.  It  is  true  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  and  of  method  usually  go  together, 
but  they  are  quite  distinct  and  separate  things.  Much  knowl- 


84  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  [84 

edge  may  be  and  often  is  acquired  with  a  minimum  of  method. 
In  such  cases,  we  have  the  impracticable  man.  And  here  it 
must  be  insisted  upon  that  method  is  not  theory.  On  the 
other  hand,  much  method  may  be  acquired  with  a  minimum 
of  what  is  called  useful  knowledge.  Prof.  Davis,1  of  Harvard, 
says  science  teaching  depends  for  its  value  upon  the  method  ( 
used  by  the  teacher  rather  than  upon  the  subject  matter/ 
Karl  Pearson2  says,  in  speaking  of  the  value  of  science  in  edu- 
cation, "  The  unity  of  all  science  consists  alone  in  its  method, 
not  in  its  material.  The  true  aim  of  the  teacher  must  be  to 
impart  an  appreciation  of  method  and  not  of  knowledge 
of  parts.  Personally,  I  have  no  recollection  of  at  least  90  per 
cent,  of  the  facts  that  were  taught  me  at  school,  but  the  notions 
of  method  which  I  derived  from  my  instruction  in  Greek 
grammar  (the  contents  of  which  I  have  long  since  forgotten) 
remain  in  my  mind  as  a  really  valuable  part  of  my  school 
equipment  for  life.  The  first  claim  of  scientific  training,  its 
education  in  method,  is  to  my  mind  the  most  powerful  claim 
it  has  to  state  support.  The  scientific  habit  of  mind  is  an 
essential  to  good  citizenship." 

Having  before  us  something  of  the  claim  and  value  of 
method,  we  may  ask  :  How  is  method  acquired?  What  in- 
fluence does  the  imitative  process  have  in  acquiring  method  ? 
The  method  is  not  acquired  in  quite  the  same  way  as  knowl- 
edge. The  former  is  learned  not  so  much  by  direct  tuition  as 
the  latter.  The  what  is  learned  more  by  precept,  the  ho^v  by 
example.  To  get  a  method  we  must  first  see  some  one  use 
that  method,  or  we  must  learn  how  some  one  used  the  method. 
Next,  the  method  must  be  sufficiently  prominent  to  arrest  our 
attention.  Finally,  the  method  must  recommend  itself  as  ex- 
pedient. These  are,  however,  the  steps  we  found  to  obtain  in 
the  imitative  process,  but  when  they  have  once  been  taken, 

1  Educational  Review,  xiii,  429. 

2  Grammar  of  Science ,  Introduction. 


85]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  35 

imitation  is  as  sure  to  follow  as  gravitation  is  sure  to  pull 
down  an  unsupported  body.  If  we  take  a  type  of  persons 
of  less  plastic  brain  than  that  we  have  supposed,  or  a  case 
where  the  method  is  less  prominent  or  more  difficult  to 
acquire,  imitation  is  still  the  essential  factor  in  learning  the 
method ;  for  under  these  conditions,  the  method  of  work  is 
given  the  student  and  it  is  followed  or  imitated  until  its  use 
becomes  a  habit. 

On  the  formation  of  this  mental  habit  is  based  the  claim 
of  science  in  the  development  of  mind.  The  data  in  science 
readily  lend  themselves  to  a  method  that  may  be  often  re- 
peated, often  imitated.  The  question  may  be  asked,  why  does 
the  scientific  method  have  so  large  value?  The  answer  to 
this  may  be  found  in  Mr.  Pearson's  own  experience  and  obser- 
vations. The  value  of  the  method  he  got  from  his  teacher 
of  Greek  consisted  not  in  the  further  study  of  Greek,  but  in 
the  fact  that  the  method  thus  obtained  could  be  carried  over 
into  other  fields  of  study  and  of  action.  The  plea  made  for 
science  in  the  development  of  citizenship  is  not  that  the  citizen 
may  have  more  knowledge  of  science,  or  even  continue  his 
study  of  that  subject.  It  is  made  chiefly  on  the  ground  that 
method  obtained  in  science  can  be  used,  imitated,  in  every 
sphere  of  life.  Here  we  may  see  how  important  a  method 
of  thinking,  doing,  really  is ;  but  what  is  more  pertinent  to  our 
subject,  we  find  that  method  is  not  only  learned  by  imitation, 
but  also  that  the  application,  the  general  use  that  may  be 
made  of  method  once  acquired,  depends  upon  imitation.  The 
student  of  science  learns  how  to  find  and  collect  data,  how  to 
classify  the  data,  and  how  to  eliminate  personal  bias  and  to 
draw  sound  conclusions.  This  whole  process  can  be  applied, 
imitated,  in  the  practical  affairs  of  life. 

Method  as  an  imitative  process  is  prominent  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge.  Every  teacher  who  is  a  close  observer 
finds  that  many  students  flounder  and  fail  to  get  good  results 
from  their  work  because  they  have  not  learned  how  to  study. 


36  I  MIT  A  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [86 

Very  few  students  discover  methods  of  study  for  themselves, 
and  many  of  those  who  do  make  such  happy  hits  and  lucky 
finds  pay  for  it  dearly  in  time  and  energy.  Most  students  get 
their  best  methods  of  study  either  from  their  teachers  or  from 
their  fellow  students  by  imitating.  This  is  noticeable  in  the 
university  as  well  as  in  the  lower  schools.  But,  we  shall  not 
pursue  the  matter  of  method  and  imitation  further.  Sufficient 
has  been  said  to  indicate  their  significance  in  education.  We 
shall  now  make  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  the  process  of  learn- 
ing, to  find  to  what  extent  imitation  contributes  to  the  acqui- 
sition of  knowledge.  This  is  such  a  many-sided  question  that 
we  can  not  present  more  than  one  phase.  But,  in  so  far  as  the 
subject  is  dealt  with,  fundamental  elements  alone  will  be  con- 
sidered. The  states  of  mind  conducive  to  learning  and  some 
of  the  activities  of  mind  in  the  educational  process  will  be 
briefly  reviewed. 

Among  the  states  and  activities  of  mind,  motive  would 
come  first.  There  must  be  motive  in  order  to  affect  the  will. 
By  an  effort  of  the  will,  conscious  or  unconscious,  the  mind  is 
brought  into  a  state  called  attention.  By  the  exercise  of  atten- 
tion acquisition  and  apprehension  will  result.  What  has  been 
apprehended  and  acquired  may  be  reproduced,  elaborated,  and 
then  appear  as  thought,  understanding,  power,  character. 
Motive  and  attention  may  be  considered  under  one  term — 
interest.  James l  says,  "  Whoever  treats  of  interest  inevitably 
treats  of  attention,  for  to  say  that  an  object  is  interesting  is 
only  another  way  of  saying  that  it  excites  attention."  Oster- 
mann 2  is  of  the  same  opinion,  that  interest  may  be  regarded 
as  the  exclusive  cause  of  attention.  In  like  manner,  in  educa- 
tion interest  must  supply  the  motive  if  teaching  is  to  be  pro- 
ductive of  good  results.  So,  we  may  inquire,  What  is  interest? 
How  is  it  secured  ?  All  interest  depends  on  feeling,  and  that 

1  Talks  to  Teachers,  p.  100. 

1  Interest  in  its  Relation  to  Pedagogy,  p.  141. 


87]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  %j 

in  a  twofold  sense,  either  that  it  is  itself  a  feeling  or  that  it  is 
developed  from  feeling  by  means  of  other  psychical  processes." 
It  is  opposed  to  indifference  and  repulsion.  This  feeling  or 
interest  is  acquired  in  one  of  two  ways.  Either  it  is  borrowed 
or  the  intrinsic  nature  of  the  subject  matter  supplies  it.  In  a 
given  case  both  borrowed  and  intrinsic  interest  may  be  present, 
but  for  our  present  purpose  we  shall  consider  them  separately. 

Borrowed  interest  may  be  illustrated  in  its  purest  type  in 
the  motive  to  read  a  book  about  which,  as  to  its  contents,  you 
know  nothing.  Some  friend  or  person  in  whom  you  have 
confidence  advises  you  to  read  a  certain  book,  but  tells  you 
nothing  about  the  contents  of  the  book.  You  immediately 
make  a  note  of  the  book,  either  to  be  bought  or  to  be  secured 
at  the  library.  This  interest  in  the  yet  unknown  subject 
matter  is  lent  you.  It  will  cause  you  to  secure  the  book  and 
will  last  for  some  time  in  beginning  to  read.  Much  of  the  in- 
terest ;n  school  work,  in  beginning  subjects,  and  much  of  the 
interest  in  practical  affairs  is  of  this  kind.  It  is  literally  bor- 
rowed. A  little  different  variety  of  the  same  type  of  interest 
is  seen,  if  you  are  not  only  asked  to  read  the  book  but  some 
hint  of  the  contents  is  also  given  you.  Here  the  interest  is 
partly  borrowed  and  partly  intrinsic.  The  intrinsic  element  is 
present  so  far  as  the  contents  of  the  book  appeals  to  you ;  but 
the  interest  is  chiefly  borrowed  and  remains  such  until  you 
begin  the  study  and  have  acquired  some  clear  ideas  of  the 
subject  matter. 

How  much  of  the  interest  that  enables  children  to  do  their 
work  in  school  and  out  of  school  is  of  this  borrowed  kind, 
can  not  be  estimated.  It  is,  however,  a  large  element.  It  is 
the  most  economical  and  rational  interest  for  much  of  the  work 
to  be  done  in  school.  This  statement  is  more  largely  true 
when  this  borrowed  interest  more  or  less  consciously  loaned 
is  taken  with  another  form  of  borrowed  interest.  This  last 
form  is  made  manifest  to  the  student  by  the  deep  and  abiding 
interest  of  the  teacher  for  the  subject.  Here  the  pupil  catches 


8  8  IMITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [8  8 

the  interest  of  the  teacher,  yet  it  is  of  the  borrowed  kind  un- 
consciously controlling  the  student.  Many  persons  who  de- 
scribed their  good  or  favorite,  or  model  teachers  in  question- 
naire III,  did  so  by  saying  such  teachers  were  interested  in 
their  subjects  and  in  their  work.  Mr.1  Small  makes  a  valuable 
contribution  upon  this  point.  That  teachers  might  more  fully 
appreciate  the  value  of  the  interest  manifested  by  themselves, 
they  could  well  afford  to  read  the  testimony  given  by  pupils 
in  this  article.  The  evidence  of  a  number  of  pupils  is  given. 
"  244  students  say  that  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  the 
class  and  toward  the  subject  taught  has  made  them  enjoy  or 
hate  the  subject.  Among  the  reasons  for  dislike,  lack  of 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  named  72  times  ;  poor 
methods  15 ;  personal  dislike  for  pupil  9;  lack  of  enthusiasm  4; 
incompetency  3  ;  compulsion  and  sarcasm  i  each."  Of  those 
who  attribute  their  growing  interest  in  subjects  to  the  attitude 
of  the  teacher  they  say,  "to  the  teacher's  interest  in  subject 
104  ;  his  enthusiasm  1 1  ;  his  interest  in  pupil  5  ;  to  systematic 
suggestion  and  individual  teaching  19."  Those  teachers  who 
have  a  mind  and  heart  large  enough,  can  most  easily  and 
wisely  lend  their  own  interest  to  pupils,  and  thus  secure  the 
real  end  and  aim  of  education. 

How  do  pupils  come  to  get  the  interest  of  the  teacher  ? 
Interest,  it  will  be  remembered,  is  feeling.  We  say  feeling  is 
contagious  ;  it  is  easily  caught  from  other  people.  This  is  not 
only  a  saying,  but  it  is  also  a  fact  common  to  experience  and 
observation.  It  need  not  be  dwelt  upon  here.  When  we  say 
that  feeling,  or  that  kind  called  interest,  is  contagious,  can  be 
caught  from  others,  we  mean  it  can  be  imitated.  The  pupil 
sees  a  certain  state  of  mind,  of  feeling  in  his  teacher.  This 
the  student  can  reproduce  in  himself.  He  can  and  will  put 
himself  in  a  similar  state  of  mind.  This  process  of  transfer- 
ence of  feeling  is  imitation  ;  it  is  borrowing  interest.  A  large, 

1  Pedagogical  Seminary,  iv,  pp.  37-42. 


SQ]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  89 

and  probably  the  most  valuable,  part  of  the  teacher's  work 
consists  in  setting  the  right  kind  of  a  model  in  this  particular. 
Teachers  who  do  this  in  a  whole-souled  manner  leave  an  im- 
press upon  their  pupils  that  is  of  perennial  worth. 

I  do  not  assert  that  borrowed  interest  from  teacher  to  those 
taught  is  the  final  aim  of  education.  The  end  of  education 
from  the  standpoint  of  interest  is  to  give  the  pupil  the  power 
of  developing  in  himself  interest  of  the  intrinsic  kind.  The 
pupil  is  to  become  able  to  find  interest  in  new  subjects,  new 
lines  of  thought  and  action.  However,  I  do  assert  that  the 
intrinsic  interest  can  be  developed  by  means  of  the  borrowed. 
The  new  must  come  out  of  old.  Just  as  the  child's  ability  to 
acquire  new  knowledge  is  conditioned  upon  and  limited  by  the 
old  knowledge  already  in  its  mind,  so  new  interests  are  deter- 
mined by  and  grow  out  of  the  old. 

If  now  we  turn  from  borrowed  to  intrinsic  interest,  we  shall 
find  that  imitation  is  not  so  large  a  factor.  But,  if  we  remem- 
ber that  intrinsic  interest  is  developed  in  any  subject  only  on 
condition  that  new  and  clear  ideas  come  into  the  experience  of 
the  pupil,  we  shall  still  find  imitation  an  important  factor.  It 
was  brought  out  in  another  part  of  the  paper  that  imitation  is 
the  means  in  most  cases  for  obtaining  new,  clear  ideas.  It  is 
only  when  the  pupil  attempts  to  reconstruct,  to  reproduce,  to 
imitate,  that  all  the  parts,  the  unobserved  elements,  and  the 
new  suggestions,  come  out  of  the  subject  or  object.  It  is 
chiefly  by  means  of  imitation  that  the  pupil  makes  the  knowl- 
edge a  part  of  his  own  experience,  or  really  learns  something, 
and  acquires  new  interests.  This  holds  true  in  natural  history 
and  in  the  sciences,  and  is  generally  recognized  in  methods  of 
teaching  these  subjects.  It  also  holds  true  in  history  and  lit- 
erature, even  when  the  subject  is  taught  from  the  interpretative 
standpoint.  One  citation  from  Ostermann  will  bring  out  my 
meaning.  In  speaking  of  interest  in  history,  he  says  the  facts 
and  events  must  be  colored  '"with  little  accessory  circum- 

1 Interest  in  its  Relation  to  Pedagogy,  p.  117. 


CjO  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  [90 

stances  and  with  concrete  particulars,  so  that  the  child  not  only 
comprehends  them  with  his  intellect,  but  lives  them  over  in  his 
imagination  and  is  moved  by  them  in  heart."  This  statement 
means  the  child  must  reconstruct  the  events  in  its  own  mind, 
must  match  idea  with  idea.  It  must  imitate  the  whole  pro- 
cess by  imaging  the  event.  Its  understanding  of  history  and 
its  interest  in  the  subject  will  always  depend  on  how  accurately 
and  how  easily  it  can  imitate  the  parts  by  imaging  them. 
A  similar  process  applies  to  literature  and  other  kindred 
subjects.  Imitation  is  the  only  means  in  that  large  part  of 
education  where  borrowed  interest  must  be  relied  upon,  and 
it  is  an  essential  factor  not  only  in  developing  but  also  in  main- 
taining intrinsic  interest. 

Closely  akin  to  interest  is  another  element  in  the  educa- 
tional process.  This  element  is  what  is  called  sympathy.  We 
have  already  referred  to  what  Smith  calls  "  sympathetic  imita- 
tion." The  thought  contained  in  the  phrase  is  that  imitation 
is  the  mode  of  sympathy.  It  is  the  way  in  which  we  come 
into  sympathy  with  another  person.  l "  The  faculty  that  imi- 
tates conscious  states  is  best  denoted  by  the  term  sympathy. 
Sympathy  means,  literally,  being  affected  with  ;  we  sympathize 
with  another  when  we  make  his  inner  experience  our  own. 
The  expression  sympathy  has  reference  to  conscious  states 
rather  than  to  external  movements.  It  indicates  the  mode 
of  relation  between  conscious  persons,  which  is  precisely  the 
relation  which  constitutes  knowledge."  The  idea  here  pre- 
sented is  similar  to  that  cited  in  the  method  of  interest  in  his- 
tory and  in  literature.  By  sympathy  the  observer  knows  the 
actual  mental  processes,  for  he  lives  them  through  in  his  own 
experience.  He  does  not  use  his  rational  faculty  as  equally 
cognitive  of  all  forms  of  experience ;  he  knows  the  experience 
of  each  of  the  faculties  of  others  by  a  corresponding  faculty  in 
himself.  He  knows  feeling  by  feeling,  sympathy  by  sympathy, 

1  Methods  of  Knowledge ,  p.  1 8 1 . 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  gl 

interest  by  interest.  When  we  urge  that  the  teacher  must  be 
in  sympathy  with  the  pupil,  we  mean  the  teacher  must  repro- 
duce the  inner  experience  of  the  pupil  in  himself  as  teacher,  to 
be  able  wisely  to  teach  the  pupil.  And  when  we  say  the  pupil 
must  be  in  sympathy  with  the  teacher,  we  mean  a  similar 
thing  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  How  much  depends  in  teach- 
ing upon  this  sympathetic  imitation  every  good  teacher  knows, 
though  he  may  not  know  the  psychological  process  by  which 
it  is  brought  about.  This  principle  holds  not  only  for  relation 
between  pupil  and  teacher,  but  quite  as  well  for  relation  be- 
tween pupil  and  subject.  However,  as  was  pointed  out  in 
interest,  this  comes  largely  through  the  influence  of  the 
teachers.  Yet,  the  pupil  must  not  only  have  an  interest  in  a 
subject,  he  must  really  be  in  sympathy  with  it,  if  he  would 
learn  its  most  valuable  lessons.  So,  here  we  find  the  way  of 
knowledge  is  sympathy;  the  way  of  sympathy  is  imitation. 

The  final  step  in  the  learning  process  is  elaboration.  The 
knowledge  acquired  in  the  earlier  steps  must  be  elaborated, 
worked  over,  to  result  in  power  and  character.  This  process 
is  analogous  to  what  we  call  digestion  and  assimilation  in  the 
physical  system.  No  amount  of  food  taken  into  the  stomach 
will  result  in  physical  and  brain  energy  unless  the  food  is 
digested  and  assimilated.  Many  children  and  adults  literally 
starve  although  they  take  abundant  food  into  the  stomach. 
In  like  manner,  many  students  store  their  minds  well  with 
facts  but  never  attain  efficiency  because  the  facts  are  not 
assimilated.  The  process  is  stopped  short  of  the  real  end.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  such  a  hue  and  cry  is  so  often  raised 
against  memory.  The  reason  for  this  is  not  that  memory  is 
not  an  essential  to  mind  development,  but  that  the  learning 
process  stopped  at  the  memory  stage,  assimilation  did  not 
follow. 

In  order  to  find  what  part  imitation  plays  in  assimilation, 
let  us  inquire  into  the  nature  of  assimilation  in  learning. 
What  are  the  conditions  under  which  knowledge  is  assimi- 


IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION 


[92 


lated  ?  A  few  quotations  will  bring  out  the  point.  x  "  The 
preparation  of  the  child's  mind  for  a  rapid  and  effective  assimi- 
lation of  new  knowledge,  and  the  presentation  of  the  matter  of 
instruction  in  such  order  and  manner  as  will  best  conduce  to 
the  most  effective  assimilation,  is  the  first  step  in  teaching." 
This  statement  of  the  simpler  stages  of  assimilation  is  also 
presented  in  our  modern  notion  of  apperception.  2  "  Apper- 
ception may  be  roughly  defined  at  first  as  the  process  of 
acquiring  new  ideas  by  the  aid  of  old  ideas  already  in  the 
mind."  In  good  teaching  assimilation  occurs  at  every  step. 
In  these  statements  the  simpler  forms  of  assimilation  are  made 
prominent,  such  as  is  found  chiefly  in  acquisition.  The 
highest  type  of  assimilation  is  manifested  only  in  the  inductive 
process,  in  generalizations.  3"The  mind  must  ever  rise  from 
clear  individual  to  distinct  general  notions."  To  get  our 
bearings  in  mind  before  these  statements  are  examined,  let  us 
note  what  Rosenkranz  says  on  the  act  of  learning.  4  "  In  the 
process  of  instruction,"  he  says,  "  the  interaction  between 
pupil  and  teacher  must  be  so  managed  that  the  exposition  by 
the  teacher  shall  excite  in  the  pupil  the  impulse  to  reproduc- 
tion. The  didactic  exposition  will,  through  its  perfect  adapta- 
tion, call  out  the  imitative  instinct,  the  powers  of  new  creation." 
Let  us  now  try  to  find  how  imitation  functions  in  these  acts  of 
learning. 

Why  should  we  prepare  the  pupil's  mind  for  the  presenta- 
tion ?  Why  should  the  old  be  brought  into  consciousness  and 
vivified  in  order  to  acquire  the  new  ?  It  is  usually  said  the 
purpose  is  to  enable  the  pupil  to  interpret  the  new  in  terms  of  the 
old.  Rosenkranz's  term  "  reproduction  "  comes  more  near  to 
expressing  the  real  act.  The  mind  is  prepared  for  instruction 

1  De  Garmo's  Essentials  of  Method,  p.  46. 

*  McMurry's  General  Method,  p.  176. 
8  Essentials  of  Method,  p.  78. 

*  Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  113. 


93]  SIGNIFICANCE   OF  IMITATION  g^ 

by  preparing  a  copy,  a  model,  out  of  the  old,  so  that  the  pupil 
may  reproduce,  may  imitate,  in  terms  of  this  model.  Bald- 
win says,  on  this  point,  luThe  principle  of  assimilation  clearly 
illustrates  not  only  that  a  copy-image  may  be  so  strong  and 
habitual  in  consciousness  as  to  assimilate  new  experiences  to 
its  form  and  color,  but  also  that  this  assimilation  is  the  very 
mode  and  method  of  the  mind's  digestion  of  what  it  feeds  upon. 
We  may  say  that  assimilation  is  due  to  a  tendency  of  a  new 
sensory  process  to  be  drawn  off  into  performed  motor  reac- 
tions; these  performed  reactions  in  their  turn  tending  to  rein- 
state, by  the  principle  of  imitation,  the  old  stimulations  or 
memories  which  led  to  their  performation,  with  all  the  associ- 
ations of  these  memories.  'These  memories,  therefore,  tend  to 
take  the  place  or  stand  for  the  new  stimulations  which  are  be- 
ing thus  assimilated."  Thus  one  may  see  that  an  essential 
characteristic  of  assimilation  is  the  imitative  function  of  mind, 
and  this  function  is  present  in  all  the  forms  and  grades  of 
assimilation ;  in  some  more,  in  others  less. 

Finally,  does  imitation  form  any  part  of  induction  and  gen- 
eralization ?  What  was  given  under  scientific  method  and  its 
value  in  education,  would  answer  this  in  the  affirmative.  But 
that  is  not  the  whole  value  of  imitation  in  generalization.  If 
we  follow  2  Dr.  Harris,  we  shall  find  that  the  syllogism  is  not 
only  closely  related  to  apperception  and  to  induction,  but  that 
it  is  also  the  basis  for  generalizations.  It  is  the  mold  in  which 
particular  notions  are  fashioned  into  general  notions.  It  is 
the  model  after  which  generalizations  are  patterned.  When 
once  the  model  is  learned  and  fixed  in  the  mind,  the  process 
of  forming  general  notions  and  conclusions  is  simply  a  repro- 
duction, and  imitation  of  the  model. 

There  is  still  another  sense  in  which  imitation  is  prominent 
in  learning.  Prof.  James  makes  the  point  that 3  "  Imitation 

1  Mental  Development,  pp.  308-311. 

2  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Philosophy,  pp.  96-125. 
8  Talks  to  Teachers,  pp.  49-55. 


94 


IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION 


shades  imperceptibly  into  emulation.  Emulation  is  the  im- 
pulse to  imitate  what  you  see  another  doing,  in  order  not  to 
appear  inferior.  Emulation  is  the  very  nerve  of  human  soci- 
ety, and  in  the  school  room,  imitation  and  emulation  play 
absolutely  vital  parts.  The  teacher  who  meets  with  most 
success  is  the  teacher  whose  own  ways  are  the  most  imitable. 
The  classic  example  of  such  a  teacher  is  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby. 
It  may  be  said  that  the  feeling  of  rivalry  lies  at  the  very  basis 
of  our  being,  all  social  improvement  being  largely  due  to  it." 
Most  of  the  work  of  the  world  is  done  through  this  stimulus. 
It  should  be  remembered  there  is  a  generous  kind  of  rivalry, 
as  well  as  a  spiteful  and  greedy  kind.  However,  even  the 
fighting  impulse  must  often  be  appealed  to.  "  It  is  nonsense 
to  suppose  that  every  step  in  education  can  be  interesting." 
Yet,  the  most  wholesome  kind  of  emulation  is  such  as  Steven- 
son exhibited.  He  says  "  I  learned  to  write  (that  is,  compose) 
in  a  wager  with  myself."  It  is  well  sometimes  to  "  rouse  the 
pupil's  pugnacity  and  pride,  and  he  will  rush  at  the  difficult 
places  with  a  sort  of  inner  wrath  at  himself  that  is  one  of  the 
best  moral  faculties.  A  victory  scored  under  such  conditions 
becomes  a  turning-point  and  crisis  of  his  character.  It  repre- 
sents the  high-water  mark  of  his  powers,  and  serves  thereafter 
as  an  ideal  pattern  for  his  self-  imitation."  It  should  be  ob- 
served here  that  imitation  in  this  sense  is  not  a  process  in 
learning  but  rather  an  incentive  for  learning. 

It  must  be  observed  that  there  are  many  dangers  and  limi- 
tations of  imitation.  It  is  not  supposed  for  a  moment  that  the 
imitative  method  is  to  be  a  panacea  for  all  the  ills  of  education. 
Imitation  is  subject  to  the  same  dangers  and  abuses  incident 
to  any  other  method  of  securing  mind  activity.  The  abuse  of 
memory  work  has  already  been  referred  to.  The  abuse  of 
imitation  may  be  likened  to  that  of  memory.  If  only  the 
lower,  more  mechanical  elements  are  called  into  play,  imita- 
tion will  be  of  little  value  and  may  prove  harmful.  The 
whole  round  of  mental  activity,  from  observation  to  execution, 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION  g^ 

must  be  exercised.  In  imitation  as  in  any  other  efficient 
method  of  teaching,  danger  is  always  close  at  hand.  Folly 
and  prudence,  blunder  and  skill,  are  always  next-door  neigh- 
bors. This  tendency  to  over-emphasize  "  the  new  "  is  seen  in 
science  where  "  method  "  is  the  chief  thing  of  value.  How- 
ever, this  truth  is  no  sooner  recognized  than  the  folly  of  "  All 
is  in  all  "  appears.  It  is  also  manifested  in  the  adherents  of 
the  "  worth-whileness  "  doctrine.  Useful  knowledge  is  here 
the  means  and  aim  ;  the  value  of  the  subject-matter  to  develop 
mind  is  neglected  ;  the  capacity  of  the  learner  over-looked ; 
or  the  work  degenerates  into  the  too  common-place — what 
the  child  already  knows  or  will  know  at  the  right  time  with- 
out waste  of  time  and  energy  in  school  to  teach  such 
knowledge. 

The  more  apparent  dangers  of  imitation  will  be  found  in 
the  model,  in  the  motive,  and  in  the  method.  The  results  as 
shown  in  questionnaires  I  and  II  indicate,  and  observation  and 
experience  prove,  that  many  persons  are  quite  as  much  dis- 
posed to  imitate  bad  models  as  to  imitate  good  models. 
1  Warner  points  out  that  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid 
the  daily  contact  of  over-mobile,  hysterical,  stammering  chil- 
dren with  other  children  of  mobile  or  nervous  temperament. 
The  latter,  though  not  given  to  the  infirmities  of  the  former, 
will  soon  acquire  them  through  imitation. 

A  still  greater  danger  lies  in  the  motive  for  imitation.  The 
motive  may  be  wise  or  silly.  If  the  motive  for  imitation  is  to 
get  new  ideas,  a  better  method  of  doing  work,  to  suggest  or 
express  a  new  idea,  thought  or  feeling,  it  is  on  the  whole  good; 
if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  display,  of  decep- 
tion, of  shirking,  it  is  bad.  It  has  been  truthfully  said  that 
man  is  by  nature  lazy.  Recently,  one  of  the  papers  interviewed 
a  number  of  the  prominent  business  men  of  this  city,  to  get 
their  opinions  on  why  so  many  young  men  fail  to  secure  and 

1  Mental  Faculty,  p.  129. 


96  IMITATION  IN  EDUCATION  [96 

hold  good  positions,  and  to  be  promoted  to  better  positions. 
The  answers  were  all  summarized  in  the  single  term  "  laziness." 
There  is  much  danger  that  imitation  may  be  prompted  by  lazi- 
ness, because  the  chief  merit  of  imitation  is  that  it  is  an  easier, 
surer  way  of  getting  results.  This  will  tend  to  make  it  popu- 
lar with  the  indolent ;  it  should  be  carefully  guarded  against 
by  teachers.  This  danger  of  motive  to  shirk  work  and  respon- 
sibility applies  to  both  teacher  and  pupil.  There  is  no  more 
prevalent  sin  among  teachers  than  the  tendency  to  let  things 
settle  down  into  cut  and  dried  methods  of  teaching.  It  re- 
quires no  small  amount  of  labor  and  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  hold  up  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  to  keep  things  well 
alive,  and  to  avoid  "  the  line  of  least  resistance,"  even  when 
that  course  is  harmful.  Owing  to  laziness,  or  indifference, 
teachers  too  often  come  to  the  conclusion  that  pupils  are  dull 
when  they  are  really  only  in  need  of  the  right  kind  of  stimu- 
lus and  encouragement  to  wake  them  up.  The  danger  here  is 
of  being  satisfied  with  too  low  grade  of  imitation,  with  too 
mechanical  work.  The  good  teacher  should  always  be  slow 
to  conclude  that  any  pupil  can  not  be  more  than  a  mere 
copyist. 

The  danger  in  the  method  of  imitating  consists  largely  in 
not  giving  the  pupil  sufficient  freedom.  The  pupil  must  not 
only  have  some  freedom  in  the  choice  of  model,  but  he  must 
have  almost  absolute  freedom  in  imitating  such  models.  It  is 
only  when  the  child  enjoys  such  freedom  that  the  imitative 
process  can  bring  out  and  develop  whatever  of  talent  he  may 
possess.  Imitation  is  a  process  for  putting  the  child  in  con- 
scious possession  of  its  own  powers,  not  those  of  any  other 
person.  If  it  is  to  serve  its  proper  function,  it  must  develop 
the  individuality  of  the  child,  let  that  individuality  be  much  or 
little.  To  develop  this,  the  teacher  must  encourage  the  pupil, 
keep  him  hopeful.  The  reach  of  the  pupil  must  ever  be  higher 
than  his  grasp. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  imitation  has  well  defined 


97]  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITATION 


limitations.  It  can  not  create  brain  power,  nor  a  faculty  of 
mind.  The  most  it  can  do  is  to  develop  the  faculties  which 
the  pupils  possess.  It  can  not  make  indifferent  teachers  en- 
thusiastic and  interested  in  their  work ;  nor  can  it  cure  slug- 
gishness in  disposition  and  laziness  in  either  pupil  or  teacher. 

Let  us  now  summarize  what  the  evidence  in  this  paper  seems 
to  indicate.  Imitation  has  its  origin  in  instinct.  Both  the 
lower  animals  and  mankind  have  an  instinctive  tendency  to 
imitate.  This  instinctive  tendency  in  human  beings  develops 
with  intelligence  and  tends  to  become  a  faculty — the  ability  to 
imitate.  The  ability  to  imitate  is  a  characteristic  distinguish- 
ing man  from  the  lower  animals.  This  ability  gives  rise  to 
and  makes  originality  possible ;  in  all  invention  and  discovery, 
excepting  such  invention  and  discovery  as  is  achieved  by  ac- 
cident— either  by  a  happy  hit  or  a  lucky  find  through  long 
continued  trial  and  error — imitation  is  an  essential  factor.  In 
considering  the  scope  of  imitation,  we  found  that  the  tendency 
and  ability  to  imitate  are  ever  present  influences  in  human 
affairs  arid  in  human  conduct.  We  saw  that  imitation  has 
been  prominent  in  historical  events  of  the  world ;  that  it  is 
present  in  art,  in  science,  in  society,  in  religion,  and  in  govern- 
ment. 

The  significance  of  imitation  was  pointed  out  in  some  of  its 
more  fundamental  relations  to  education.  Pupils  in  school 
imitate  their  fellow- students  and  their  teachers.  Both  good 
models  and  bad  models  are  imitated ;  each  of  the  four  ques- 
tionnaires goes  to  prove  this  fact.  The  fact  that  these  models 
and  the  tendency  to  imitate  them  are  permanent  possessions 
of  pupils  is  sufficiently  well  shown  in  training  teachers,  and 
manifested  later  in  their  methods  of  school  work.  The  evi- 
dence seems  to  show  that  failure  to  recognize  the  influence 
and  the  value  of  imitation  has  been  the  occasion  of  much  in- 
efficiency in  teaching,  and  has  resulted  in  much  waste  of  time 
and  energy  in  the  training  of  teachers.  Many  teachers  have 
had  their  efficiency  greatly  impaired  by  the  influence  of  bad 


98  IMITA  TION  IN  ED  UCA  TION  [^g 

models  under  whom  they  received  their  academic  and  profes- 
sional knowledge.  Some  teachers  relapse,  after  good  training, 
into  bad  methods  absorbed  in  early  education.  The  progress 
of  those  who  do  become  efficient  teachers  is  rendered  more 
slow  and  difficult.  It  was  also  pointed  out  that  if  the  imita- 
tive tendency  and  ability  of  students  were  properly  utilized, 
the  long  apprenticeship  in  training  schools  might  be  shortened; 
that  the  emphasis  in  the  training  of  teachers  should  be  placed 
upon  model  school  work  seen  and  upon  the  subsequent  criti- 
cism and  discussion  of  the  model  teaching  ;  that  the  proper 
function  of  pupil  teaching  is  to  bring  out  and  emphasize  what 
models  should  be  imitated. 

It  was  also  shown  that  much  of  motive  and  interest  neces- 
sary to  good  work  in  school  is  due  to  imitation.  This  interest 
either  has  its  origin  in  imitation  or  else  imitation  is  the  only 
means  for  the  transference  of  this  interest  to  pupils.  Moral 
teaching,  the  learning  of  language,  the  acquisition  and  applica- 
tion of  method,  the  whole  of  the  learning  process  depend  in 
no  small  degree  upon  imitation  for  rapidity,  facility,  certainty. 
The  influence  of  imitation  in  these  processes  illustrates  what 
may  reasonably  be  claimed  for  it  in  other  lines. 

The  real  worth  of  imitation  in  education  consists  in  the  self- 
activity  it  occasions.  It  calls  into  exercise  all  the  powers  of 
mind,  from  the  acquisition  of  sense-knowledge  to  the  develop- 
ment of  will-power  and  of  skill  in  doing.  The  expediency  or 
economy  of  imitation  in  education  consists  in  the  fact  that  the 
imitative  method  takes  full  cognizance  of  all  the  race  has  in- 
herited from  the  past,  and  it  builds  upon  this  inheritance  in  de- 
veloping the  mind  of  the  child.  Imitation  begins  this  develop- 
ment by  putting  the  child  into  conscious  and  intelligent 
possession  of  the  achievements  of  the  race  in  a  more  economi- 
cal and  rational  way.  The  imitative  method  of  learning  dis- 
closes the  vanity  and  the  inanity  of  requiring  the  child  to  invent 
and  rediscover  what  the  race  has  already  invented  or  discov- 
ered. By  this  imitative  method  the  child  would  verify  through 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  IMITA  TION  99 

imitating  what  has  already  been  achieved,  and  thus  shorten 
and  facilitate  the  learning  process.  By  this  means  of  verifica- 
tion, the  child  will  the  sooner  have  an  intelligent  basis,  an 
apperceiving  mass  of  knowledge  for  future  acquisition,  and 
more  energy,  free  to  pursue  and  achieve  new  thought,  invention, 
and  discovery. 

The  principles  of  imitation  are  in  perfect  accord  with  the 
more  fundamental  principles  of  education.  "Seeing  and  do- 
ing "  and  "  learning  to  do  by  doing,"  are  axiomatic  ways  of 
stating  the  imitative  process  in  learning.  No  better  directions 
could  be  given  for  the  imitative  process  than  this  principle  of 
education:  "  Let  no  task  be  assigned  until  the  method  of  doing 
it  has  been  explained;"  unless  we  add  to  this  principle,  until 
the  method  of  doing  it  has  been  seen  and  explained.  To  say 
"  Proceed  from  the  known  to  the  related  unknown,"  is  to  say, 
go  by  the  way  of  imitation;  for  the  sum  and  substance  of  imi- 
tation in  education  consists  in  its  building  up  knowledge, 
power,  and  skill  out  of  what  either  the  individual  or  the  race 
has  already  achieved. 

Finally,  it  devolves  upon  teachers  to  see  that  pupils  have 
the  best  models  before  them ;  that  the  pupils  understand  and 
appreciate  these  models;  that  there  be  freedom  to  change  and 
modify  these  models;  that  pupils  have,  in  using  these  models, 
right  motives,  high  ideals — to  excel  the  model  itself,  to  do 
what  they  had  not  been  able  to  do  before,  to  outstrip,  surpass 
themselves. 


99  TMD 

UNIVERSITY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Child  Observations — imitation  and  allied  activities E.  H.  Russell. 

Les  lois  de  1'  imitation Gabriel  Tarde. 

Round  Table W.  Hazlitt. 

Senses  and  Will W.  Preyer. 

First  Three  Years  of  Childhood Bernard  Perez. 

A  Study  of  a  Child L  E.  Hogan. 

Intellectual  and  Moral  Development  of  the  Child Gabriel  Compayre. 

Development  of  the  Child N.  Oppenheim. 

The  Study  of  Children F.  Warner. 

Manual  of  Psychology,  Vol.  II G.  F.  Stout. 

Unconscious  Tuition F.  D.  Huntington. 

Tom  Brown  at  Rugby Thomas  Hughes. 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Art M.  A.  Dwight. 

Animal  Life  and  Intelligence H.  R.  Marshall. 

Habit  and  Instinct Lloyd  Morgan. 

The  Psychology  of  Childhood F.  Tracy. 

Education  and  Heredity Jean  Marie  Guyau. 

Development  of  Children A.  R.  Taylor. 

Children's  Ways James  Sully. 

Education,  an  Introduction  to  its  Principles,  and  their  Psy- 
chological Foundations H.  Holman. 

Senses  and  Intellect A.  Bain. 

Psychology,  Vol.  II William  James. 

Studies  in  Literature Edward  Dowden. 

Psychology  of  Suggestion Boris  Sidis. 

Hereditary  Genius Francis  Galton. 

Psychology  of  Peoples Gustave  Le  Bon. 

Social  and  Ethical  Interpretation    J.  M.  Baldwin. 

Great  Facts T.  C.  Bakewell. 

Studies  in  History  of  the  Renaissance Walter  Pater. 

Principles  of  Sociology F.  H.  Giddings. 

Mental  Development J.  M.  Baldwin. 

Interest  in  its  Relation  to  Pedagogy  W.  Ostermann. 

Methods  of  Knowledge Walter  Smith. 

Talks  to  Teachers W.  James. 

100  [100 


IOI  BIBLIOGRAPHY  [IOI 

The  School  and  Society John  Dewey. 

Studies  in  Education Earl  Barnes. 

The  Infant  Mind W.  Preyer. 

N.  E.  A.  Report,  1896. 

Mental  Faculty Francis  Warner. 

Grammar  of  Science Karl  Pearson. 

Memories  and  Portraits R.  L.  Stevenson. 

General  Method C.  A.  McMurry. 

Essentials  of  Methods Charles  De  Garmo. 

Philosophy  of  Education J.  K.  F.  Rosenkranz. 

Natural  Inheritance Francis  Gallon. 

Physical  Nature  of  the  Child  and  How  to  Develop  It S.  H.  Rowe. 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Philosophy W.  T.  Harris. 

Autobiography  of  Franklin. 

English  Men  of  Letters — Keats John  Morley. 

La  suggestion  son  role  dans  1'  education P.  F.  Thomas. 


PERIODICAL-  LITERATURE 


Psychological  Review  : 

Preliminary  Report  on  Imitation,  Vol.  2,  pp.  217-35 Josiah  Royce. 

Psychology  of  Invention,  Vol.  5,  pp.  1 13-44 Josiah  Royce. 

Animal  Intelligence — Monograph  Supplement,  Vol.  2,  No.  4.  E.  L.  Thorndike. 
Mind: 

Natural  History  of  Consciousness,  Vol.  15,  pp.  26-55 J-  M.  Baldwin. 

Psychology  of  Instinct,  Vol.  22,  pp.  59-70 A.  J.  Hamlin. 

Pedagogical  Seminary: 

Suggestibility  of  Children,  Vol.  4,  pp.  2-46 M.  H.  Small. 

Teaching  Instinct,  Vol.  6,  pp.  188-245 D.  E.  Phillips. 

Imitation  in  Children,  Vol.  3,  pp.  30-47 E.  M.  Haskill. 

Imitation,  Vol.  4,  pp.  382-6 Caroline  Freer. 

Inhibition,  Vol.  6,  pp.  65-113 H.  S.  Curtis. 

Popular  Science  Monthly  : 

Imitation  among  Atoms,  Vol.  48,  pp.  492-5 10 E.  Noble. 

Imitative  Faculty  in  Children,  Vol.  33,  pp.  249-55 W.  Preyer. 

Living  Age  : 

Imitation  as  a  Factor  in   Human  Progress,  Vol.  181,  pp. 

728-39 E.  Fry. 

London  Spectator: 

Sphere  of  Imitativeness,  Vol.  62,  pp.  638-39. 
Century  : 

Imitative  Functions  and  their  Place  in  Human  Nature, 

Vol.  26,  pp.  137-45 J.  Royce. 

Journal  of  Science  : 

Imitation  and  Mimicry,  Vol.  21,  p.  475  ff J.  W.  Slater. 

Journal  of  Society  of  Arts  : 

Principles  of  Imitation,  Decorative  Arts,  Vol.  12,  p.  329  ff.  .P.  Purdie. 
All  the  Year: 

Spirit  of  Imitation,  Vol.  68,  p.  231  ff. 
Putnam  : 

Literaty  Imitations,  Vol.  8,  pp.  113-20. 

102  [102 


103]  PERIODICAL  LITERATURE  I 

Revue  Philosophique  : 

Vol.  45,  pp.  225-58 F.  Paulhan. 

Educational  Review  : 

Vol.  13,  pp.  429-39 W.  H.  Davis. 

Studies  in   Yale  Psychological  Laboratory  : 

Mental   and    Physical   Development   of  School   Children, 

Vol.  2,  pp.  40-100 J.  A.  Gilbert. 


VITA 


THE  writer  was  born  in  western  Virginia,  April  19,  1859. 
His  early  education  was  received  in  the  district  schools  of 
West  Virginia.  He  was  a  student  in  the  Fairmount  State 
Normal  and  in  the  University  of  West  Virginia,  five  terms  in 
each.  He  has  taken  courses  in  and  received  diplomas  or  de- 
grees from  the  following  institutions  :  Peabody  Normal  Col- 
lege, Nashville,  Tenn.,  diploma,  1888  ;  University  of  Nashville, 
A.  B.,  1889;  Harvard  University,  A.  B.,  1893  ;  Teachers'  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University,  higher  diploma,  1899;  Columbia 
University,  A.  M.,  1899. 

The  writer  has  held  scholarships  in  Peabody  Normal  Col- 
lege and  University  of  Nashville,  in  Harvard  University,  in 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  and  a  fellowship  in 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University.  His  experience  in 
school  work  has  been  as  follows :  fifteen  months  as  a  teacher 
in  district  public  schools,  thirty-two  months  as  principal  of 
village  graded  schools,  and  five  years  as  principal  of  the  West 
Liberty  State  Normal  School  in  West  Virginia. 

(105) 


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